DTL Reference Guide¶

Table of Contents

Introduction ¶

The Data Transformation Language (DTL) has been created as a means to allow developers to clearly describe transformations that should be performed on streams of data in order to create new datasets.

DTL allows developers to describe a data transform. The DTL processor applies the transform to a stream of entities. For each entity in the stream the same transform is applied. The result of processing is a stream of new entities.

A DTL transform describes how to construct new entities from the source entity. A transform can also perform hops that range across datasets in the datahub. These hops must start from the source entity.

DTL consists of 'functions' that can pick and transform data and 'hops' that can traverse the data in the datahub. In combination these offer a powerful way to construct new data entities from existing data. DTL functions are composable and thus allowing complex computation to be expressed.

Syntax ¶

DTL uses a JSON syntax to describe the transforms to perform. In general DTL uses functions over keywords and as such there are just a few terms that are baked into the language.

An example using the 'add' transform:

["add", "name", "_S.firstname"]

And composing functions:

["add", "name", ["concat", ["upper", "_S.lastname"], ", ", "_S.firstname"]]

Annotated Example ¶

Lets say that we have two datasets person and orders, and that we want to transform the persons by joining in their orders and apply a few other transform functions. In this section you'll find a complete DTL transform that takes entities from the person dataset, joins them with entities from the orders dataset and creates new entities from them.

Given the following source entity (from the person dataset):

{
  "_id": "1",
  "name": "John Smith",
  "age": 25
}

We then want to transform it into the following target entity:

{
  "_id": "1",
  "type": "customer",
  "name": "JOHN SMITH",
  "orders": [
    {"_id": 100, "amount": 320 },
    {"_id": 200, "amount": 500 }
  ],
  "order_count": 2
}

A pipe with the dtl transform below lets us transform persons into persons with orders:

{
  "_id": "person-with-orders",
  "type": "pipe",
  "source": {
      "type": "dataset",
      "dataset": "person"
  },
  "transform": {
    "type": "dtl",
    "rules": {
        "default": [
            ["copy", "_id"],
            ["add", "type", "customer"],
            ["add", "name", ["upper", "_S.name"]],
            ["add", "orders",
              ["sorted", "_.amount", ["apply-hops", "order", {
                "datasets": ["orders o"],
                "where": [
                  ["eq", "_S._id", "o.cust_id"]
                ]
            }]]],
            ["add", "order_count", ["count", "_T.orders"]],
            ["filter", ["gt", "_T.order_count", 10]]
        ],
        "order": [
            ["copy", "_id"],
            ["add", "amount", "_S.amount"]
        ]
    }
  },
  "sink": {
      "type": "dataset",
      "dataset": "person-with-orders"
  }
}

Explanation:

The dtl transform will receive source entities from the person dataset. It will transform them and they'll be written to the person-with-orders dataset.
There are two named rules specified in the DTL transform: default and order. The default rule is mandatory and is the one that is applied to the entities in the person dataset.
["copy", "_id"] copies the _id property from the source entity to the target entity.
["add", "type", "customer"] adds the type property to the target entity with the literal value "customer".

["add", "name", ["upper", "_S.name"]] add the name property to the target entity by uppercasing the name in the source entity.

["add", "orders",
  ["sorted", "_.amount", ["apply-hops", "order", {
    "datasets": ["orders o"],
    "where": [
      ["eq", "_S._id", "o.cust_id"]
    ]
}]]]

The expression above adds the orders property to the target entity. It does this by joining the source entity's _id property with the cust_id property of entities in the orders dataset. The join is done by the apply-hops function, which takes a hops specification that contains list of datasets, assigns aliases to them, which then get exposed as variables that you can use in expressions in the where clause. The result of the join is a list of orders:
```
[{
  "_id": "100",
  "amount": 320,
  "order_lines": [...],
  "cust_id": "1"
},
{
  "_id": "200",
  "amount": 500
  "order_lines": [...],
  "cust_id": "1"
}]
```
Next, the order transform is then applied. The result of this is a list of orders with two properties: _id and amount:
```
[{
  "_id": "100",
  "amount": 320
},
{
  "_id": "200",
  "amount": 500
}]
```
The order entities are then sorted by their amount property before being assigned to the orders property on the target entity:
```
[{
  "_id": "100",
  "amount": 320
},
{
  "_id": "200",
  "amount": 500
}]
```
["add", "order_count", ["count", "_T.orders"]] adds the order_count property to the target entity. Note that the value is the number of order entities in the target entity's orders property. Note that we can access properties on the target entity once we've added them.
Stop processing if the ["filter", ["gt", "_T.order_count", 10]] evaluates to true. If the filter is false the target entity is not emitted / created.

Things to note:

Transform functions are applied in the order given. The order is significant, and one transform can use target entity properties created by earlier transform function.
the hops function is deterministic but not sorted (it produces deterministic order based on the _id property of the entities within each dataset it processes). You must apply the sorted function to the result of a hops join to achieve a particular order.
The filter function can be used to stop transformation of individual entities, effectively filtering them out of the output stream.
When the DTL of a pipe is modified, the pipe's "last-seen" value must be cleared in order to reprocess already seen entities with the new DTL. This can be done by setting the "last-seen" value to an empty string with the update-last-seen operation in the SESAM API.

Variables ¶

There are four built-in variables in the Data Transformation Language. These are _S, _T, _P, _B and _. They refer to the source entity, the target entity, the parent context, bound endpoint variables and the current value respectively. _S and _T appear in pairs inside each applied transform. _P appears inside the apply function and refers to the parent context. _ is used to refer to the current value in functional expressions. The _B variable is used by the HTTP endpoint sinks to hold variables defined by URL parameters (i.e. a URL variable foo given to the endpoint API on the form http://my_host:port/api/publishers/my_endpoint?foo=bar will be reflected in the _B map as a key foo with the value bar). It is useful for parameterizing the transform on an endpoint sink.

Variable	Description	Examples
`_S`	Refers to the source entity. This is the entity on which the DTL transform operate. Note that with the `apply` function you can apply nested transform rules, where each of the values given to `apply` is made a source entity for that nested transform.	`["gt", "_S.age", 42]` The source entity's `age` field must have a value greater than 42.
`_T`	Refers to the target entity. This is the entity that is the primary target entity of transforming the source entity. Note that the `create` transform can be used to emit entities in addition to just the target entity.	`["gt", ["length", "_T.length"], 100]` The target entity's `description` field must have a length of more than 100 characters.
`_P`	A dict that contains the source entity and the target entity of the parent context. If the parent context also has a parent context, then that will also be available. The dict always contains the `_S` and `_T` variables, while the `_P` property is optional. `_P` does not contain the `_R` variable. Note that the `_P` appears only inside the `apply` function.	`["gt", "_P._S.age", 18]` The parent source entity's `age` field must be greater than 18. `["lt", ["length", "_P._P._T.description"], 100]` The grandparent target entity's `description` field must have a length of less than 100 characters.
`_R`	A dict that contains the source entity and the target entity of the root context. The root context is the outermost context, which in practice is the context of the `default` rule. The dict contains the `_S` and `_T` variables.	`["lt", "_R._S.age", 18]` The root source entity's `age` field must be less than 18. `["lt", ["length", "_R._T.description"], 50]` The root target entity's `description` field must have a length of less than 50 characters.
`_`	Refers to the current entity. This variable is only available inside a few functions that take a function expression as an argument. Examples of such functions are `filter`, `sorted` `min`, `max`, and `coalesce`.	`["filter", ["gt", "_.amount", 100], "_S.orders"]]` Filters out the order entities that have an amount of less than 100, i.e. the filter function returns only the orders that have an amount of greater than 100. As you can see the `_` variable refers to the individual order entities, one at a time.

Path Expressions and Hops ¶

There are three ways that one can access properties on entities:

Property path strings: "_S.orders.amount", which will start from the given variable, in this case the source entity _S, and then traverse to the orders property and then to the amount property. The end result is a list of amounts. Note that property path strings function can only access property on the entity it operates on, including nested entities.

One can also refer to the content of the variables themselves, e.g. _S. would refer to the source entity itself (note the dot after the variable name). _T. refers to the target entity, and _. refers to the current value.
The "path" function: ["path", "placed_by", ["sorted", "_.amount", "_S.orders"]], which will first evaluate the rightmost expression. Then it will traverse the path given in the first argument for each of them and return the end result. The first argument is an expression that resolve to either a single string or a list of strings. Note that the path function can only access property on the dictionary/entity it operates on, including nested entities.
The "hops" function:
```
["hops", {
    "datasets": ["orders o"],
    "where": [
      ["eq", "_S._id", "o.cust_id"],
      ["eq", "o.type", "BILLING"]
    ]
}]
```
The hops function can be used to perform joins across two or more datasets, so if you want to navigate beyond the current entity use hops. This particular example will join the source entity with entities from the orders dataset using the ["eq", "_S._id", "o.cust_id"] join expression and then filter the orders by ["eq", "o.type", "BILLING"]. Note that only eq functions will be treated as join expressions. All other function are treated as filter expressions. For an eq to be a join expression it will have to refer to variables from two different datasets.

How joins work ¶

Given two entities A and B bound to the dataset aliases a and b in the expressions below:

{
  "_id": "A",
  "value": 1,
  "values": [1, 2, 4, 5]
}

{
  "_id": "B",
  "value": 1,
  "values": [1, 3, 4, 6]
}

There are four different kinds of joins:

One-to-one join: ["eq", "a.value", "b.value"]
One-to-many: ["eq", "a.value", "b.values"]
Many-to-one: ["eq", "a.values", "b.value"]
Many-to-many: ["eq", "a.values", "b.values"]

The rule for joins is very simple: if any of the values overlap, then the join succeeds.

All of the four joins given above succeed for the two entities because they all have overlapping values, i.e. the values 1 and 4.

Join expressions that contain functional expressions work the same way, e.g. ["eq", ["+", "a.value", 2], "b.values"] succeeds as 3 is a value shared by both.

If you need to do joins with composite keys then the tuples DTL function is useful. Using composite keys is almost always a better choice than having multiple individual joins as the former will have better precision.

Note

null values and deleted entities are not indexed, so they are not traversed by joins.

Note

It is only eq functions that reference a single dataset alias in both left and right arguments that are considered join functions.

There must be exactly one unique dataset alias reference in each eq argument.

Namespaces ¶

The following functions are namespace aware: add, default, make-ni, remove, copy, rename and path. This means they behave slightly differently when namespaced identifiers is enabled.

Function arguments that are of type wildcard-string will make pattern matching aware of the boundary between the namespace and the identifier parts of namespaced identifiers.
Function arguments that reference unqualified properties, i.e. properties with only the identifier part, will in general match that property in all namespaces.

See the individual functions for more details.

NI escape syntax ¶

"foo:bar" is an example of a fully qualified namespaced identifier. "bar" is an unqualified one and consists of only the identifier part. There exists two special prefixes, ":" and "::".

If you want to make sure that the value is to be interpreted as-is then use the "::" prefix, e.g. "::bar". "::foo:bar" is equivalent to "foo:bar".
If you want the value to be relative to the current namespace, i.e. identity or property namespace depending on the context, then use the ":" prefix, e.g. ":bar". If the current property namespace is "foo" then ":bar" is equivalent to "foo:bar".

Argument types ¶

In the function tables below you'll see argument lists like this CONDITION(boolean-expression{1}), THEN(transforms{1}), ELSE(transforms{0|1}).

CONDITION, THEN and ELSE are logical names that have no meaning other than so that we can refer to them by name. Inside the parenthesis is the type of argument, i.e. boolean-expression and transforms. The numbers inside the curly braces is the cardinality of the argument. Here are some cardinalites that you'll come across:

{0|1}: zero or one, i.e. optional.
{1}: exactly one
{2}: exactly two
{>=0}: zero or more
{>=1}: one or more

Argument type	Description	Examples
`boolean-expression`	Refers to an expression that returns a single "boolean" value. Note that `false`, `null` and `[]` evaluate to false. All other values evaluate to true.	`["eq", "_S.type", "person"]`
`integer-expression`	Refers to an expression that returns a single "integer" value.	`["+", 1, 2]`
`value-expression`	Refers to an expression that returns null, a single value or a list of values.	`["list", 1, 2, 3]`
`function-expression`	Refers to a value expression argument that operates on a list of values, and exposes the `_` current value variable for each of them.	`["upper", "_.name"]`
`string`	Refers to a constant string literal.	`"Jupiter"`
`wildcard-string`	Refers to a constant string pattern literal that can include the `*` and `?` wildcard characters.	`"alpha_*"` or `"person"`
`wildcard-string-list`	Same as `wildcard-string`, but a list of them.	`["alpha_", "beta_"]`
`transforms`	A single transform function, or a list of them.	`["add", "type", "person"]` or `[["add", "type", "person"],` `["copy", ["list", "name", "age"]]]]`

Transforms ¶

A transform function is a function that has side-effects, typically modifiying the target entity, and has no return value.

Function	Description	Examples
`if`	Arguments: CONDITION(boolean-expression{1}), THEN(transforms{1}), ELSE(transforms{0\|1}) If CONDITION evaluates to true then apply the transforms in THEN, otherwise apply the transforms in ELSE. Note that the THEN and ELSE arguments can either be a single transform function or a list of transform functions. The list can be empty.	`["if", ["eq", "_S.type", "person"], [` `["add", "type", "person"],` `["copy", ["list", "name", "age"]]]]` If the source entity's `type` field is equal `person` then apply the `add` and `copy` transforms. There is no else clause given, which is effectively the same as an empty list with no transforms. `["if", ["gt", "_S.age", 18],` `["add", "type", "adult"],` `["add", "type", "child"]]` If the source entity's `age` is greater than 18 then add `type` field with value `adult`, if not add `child`.
`comment`	Arguments: COMMENTS(value-expression{>=0}) A transform that does nothing except hold comments. Useful for documenting the transforms, or just disabling transforms inside. Any expressions inside the comment will not be evaluated.	`["comment", "This is a comment"]` A single line comment. `["comment",` `"First line",` `"Second line",` `"Third line"]` A comment that spans multiple lines.
`filter`	Arguments: FILTER(boolean-expression{0\|1}) If the evaluation of the FILTER expression returns false, then stop applying transformations. In this case no target entity is emitted for the source entity. Note that any entities already emitted by `create` will not be stopped. If the FILTER argument is not given then the filter evaluates to false. Note If used with a `dataset` sink then the `filter` function will set the `_filtered` property to `true` and emit the entity. The reason for this is so that the `dataset` sink can detect deleted entities even on incremental syncs, not just on full syncs. Entities with the `_filtered` property set to `true` will thus be deleted from the dataset if the entity already exists and it is not already deleted. The rationale for this behaviour is so that entities that have previous versions get deleted in the resulting dataset when they no longer pass the filter. If you have more than one transform then you may want to be careful about how you process `_filtered` entities in subsequent transforms. If you would like to control how deletions happen, then you should not use the `filter` function, but instead set the `_deleted` property.	`["filter", ["gt", "_S.age", 42]]` Continue processing only if the source entity's age is greater than 42. `["filter", ["eq", "_S.type", "person]]` Continue processing only if the source entity's type is `person`. `["filter"]` Stop processing.
`add`	Arguments: PROPERTY(string{1}) VALUES(value-expression{1}) Adds the PROPERTY field(s) to the target entity with the values returned by evaluating the VALUES expression. Note This transform function is namespaced identifiers aware. If namespaced identifiers are enabled, then the property will be prefixed by the current namespace. If the property is `_id` then the string values will be prefixed by the identity namespace. All other properties will have their name prefixed by the property namespace.	`["add", "age", 26]` Adds the `age` property with the value 26 to the target entity. `["add", "upper_name", ["upper", "_S.name"]]` Adds the `upper_name` property to the target entity. The value is the uppercased version of the source entity's `name` property. `["add",` `["concat", "x-", "_S.key"], "_S.value"]` Adds the property returned by the `concat` function and assigns it the value returned by `_S.value`. With namespaced identifiers enabled: `{` `"namespaced_identifiers": true,` `"namespaces": {` `"identity": "foo",` `"property": "bar"` `}` `}` Source entity: `{}` `["add", "age", 26]` Result: `{"bar:age": 26}`. Adds the `bar:age` property with the value 26 to the target entity. `["add", "person:age", 26]` Result: `{"person:age": 26}`. Adds the `person:age` property with the value 26 to the target entity. `["add", "::age", 26]` Result: `{"age": 26}`. Adds the `age` property with the value 26 to the target entity. Note that if the PROPERTY arguments starts with `::` it will be interpreted to mean add what ever is after the double colons. See NI escape syntax for more details. `["add", ":age", 26]` Result: `{"bar:age": 26}`. Adds the `bar:age` property with the value 26 to the target entity. Note that this example uses the NI escape syntax to reference the current namespace.
`default`	Arguments: PROPERTY(string{1}) VALUES(value-expression{1}) Adds the PROPERTY field(s) to the target entity with the values returned by evaluating the VALUES expression, unless the property already exists. `default` behaves exactly like `add`, except that it does not add the property if the property already exists on the target entity. If the property exists it does nothing. Note This transform function is namespaced identifiers aware. If namespaced identifiers are enabled, then the property will be prefixed by the current namespace. If the property is `_id` then the string values will be prefixed by the identity namespace. All other properties will have their name prefixed by the property namespace.	`["default", "age", 26]` Adds the `age` property with the value 26 to the target entity, if the property does not exists. `["default", "upper_name", ["upper", "_S.name"]]` Adds the `upper_name` property to the target entity, if the property does not exists.. The value is the uppercased version of the source entity's `name` property. `["default",` `["concat", "x-", "_S.key"], "_S.value"]` Adds the property returned by the `concat` function and assigns it the value returned by `_S.value`, if the property does not exists.. With namespaced identifiers enabled: `{` `"namespaced_identifiers": true,` `"namespaces": {` `"identity": "foo",` `"property": "bar"` `}` `}` Source entity: `{}` `["default", "age", 26]` Result: `{"bar:age": 26}`. If the target entity does not already have the `bar:age` property, then the `bar:age` property with the value 26 is added to the target entity. `["default", "person:age", 26]` Result: `{"person:age": 26}`. If the target entity does not already have the `person:age` property, then the `person:age` property with the value 26 is added to the target entity. `["default", "::age", 26]` Result: `{"age": 26}`. If the target entity does not already have the `age` property, then the `age` property with the value 26 is added to the target entity. Note that if the PROPERTY arguments starts with `::` it will be interpreted to mean add what ever is after the double colons. See NI escape syntax for more details. `["default", ":age", 26]` Result: `{"bar:age": 26}`. If the target entity does not already have the `bar:age` property, then the `bar:age` property with the value 26 is added to the target entity. Note that this example uses the NI escape syntax to reference the current namespace.
`make-ni`	Arguments: NAMESPACE(string{1}) FROM_PROPERTY(string{1}) TO_PROPERTY(string{0\|1}) Adds the FROM_PROPERTY field to the target entity's TO_PROPERTY with string values made into namespaced identifiers in the NAMESPACE namespace. If none of the values can be made into namespaced identifiers then nothing is added. If TO_PROPERTY is omitted then it defaults to FROM_PROPERTY + `-ni`. Note This transform function is namespaced identifiers aware. If namespaced identifiers are enabled, then the property will be prefixed by the current namespace. If the property is `_id` then the string values will be prefixed by the identity namespace. All other properties will have their name prefixed by the property namespace.	`["make-ni", "soccer", "referee", "ref"]` If the source entity has `{"referee": "john.doe"}` then adds the `ref` property with the value `~:soccer:john.doe` to the target entity. `["make-ni", "hockey", "players"]` Adds the `players-ni` property to the target entity, if any namespaced identifiers were created. With namespaced identifiers enabled: `{` `"namespaced_identifiers": true,` `"namespaces": {` `"identity": "foo",` `"property": "bar"` `}` `}` Source entity: `{"referee": "john.doe",` `"x:referee": "john.c.doe"}` `["make-ni", "soccer", "referee"]` Result: `{ "referee-ni": "~:soccer:john.doe"` `"x:referee-ni": "~:soccer:john.c.doe" }`. Copies all `referee` properties in all namespaces from the source entity to the target entity. Note that the target properties are suffixed by `-ni`. The values are converted into NIs by adding the `soccer` namespace. Any non-string values are ignored. `["make-ni", "soccer", "referee", "ref"]` Result: `{ "ref": "~:soccer:john.doe"` `"x:ref": "~:soccer:john.c.doe" }`. Copies all `referee` properties in all namespaces from the source entity to the target entity. Note that the target properties are not suffixed by `-ni`. The properties keep their namespaces, but the identifier part is replaced by `ref`. The values are converted into NIs by adding the `soccer` namespace. Any non-string values are ignored. `["make-ni", "soccer", "x:referee"]` Result: `{ "x:referee-ni": "~:soccer:john.c.doe" }`. Copies the `x:referee` property as `x:referee-ni` from the source entity to the target entity. The values are converted into NIs by adding the `soccer` namespace. Any non-string values are ignored. `["make-ni", "soccer", "x:referee", "ref"]` Result: `{ "x:ref": "~:soccer:john.c.doe" }`. Copies the `x:referee` property as `x:ref` from the source entity to the target entity. The values are converted into NIs by adding the `soccer` namespace. Any non-string values are ignored. `["make-ni", "soccer", "x:referee", "y:ref"]` Result: `{ "y:ref": "~:soccer:john.c.doe" }`. Copies the `x:referee` property as `y:ref` from the source entity to the target entity. The values are converted into NIs by adding the `soccer` namespace. Any non-string values are ignored.
`remove`	Arguments: PROPERTY(wildcard-string{1}) Removes the PROPERTY field from the target entity. The PROPERTY can be pattern with `*` and `?` characters in it. The pattern must match the full property names. Note This transform function is namespaced identifiers aware. The pattern in PROPERTY is namespace aware, so the last colon in the pattern is considered to be the separator between the namespace and the identifier.	`["remove", "age"]` Removes the `age` property from the target entity. `["remove", "temp_"]` Removes all properties matching the `temp_` wildcard pattern from the target entity. With namespaced identifiers enabled: `{` `"namespaced_identifiers": true,` `"namespaces": {` `"identity": "foo",` `"property": "bar"` `}` `}` Target entity: `{"age": 36,` `"x:age": 36}` `"y:age": 36}` `["remove", "age"]` Result: `{}`. Removes the `age` property in all namespaces from the target entity. `["remove", "x*:age"]` Result: `{"age": 36, "y:age": 36}`. Removes the `age` property in all namespaces starting with `x` from the target entity. `["remove", "x:age"]` Result: `{"age": 36, "y:age": 36}`. Removes the `x:age` property from the target entity.
`copy`	Arguments: INCLUDE_PROPERTIES(wildcard-string-list{1}) EXCLUDE_PROPERTIES(wildcard-string-list{1}) Copies properties in INCLUDE_PROPERTIES from the source entity to the target entity. Any properties matching any of the EXCLUDE_PROPERTIES patterns are not included. INCLUDE_PROPERTIES and EXCLUDE_PROPERTIES can be a single string or a list of strings, where the strings are patterns. `*` and `?` are valid pattern characters. Note This transform function is namespaced identifiers aware. The pattern in PROPERTY is namespace aware, so the last colon in the pattern is considered to be the separator between the namespace and the identifier.	`["copy", "age"]` Copies the `age` property from the source entity to the target entity. `["copy", "a", "ab"]` Copies all properties starting with `a` from the source entity to the target entity, but not those starting with `ab`. `["copy",` `["list", "a", "b"],` `["list", "ab", "ba"]]` Copies all properties starting with `a` or `b` from the source entity to the target entity, but not those starting with `ab` or `ba`. With namespaced identifiers enabled: `{` `"namespaced_identifiers": true,` `"namespaces": {` `"identity": "foo",` `"property": "bar"` `}` `}` Source entity: `{"age": 36,` `"x:age": 36}` `"xyz:age": 36}` `["copy", "age"]` Result: `{ "age": 36.` `"x:age": 36,`. `"xyz:age": 36}`. Copies the `age` property in all namespaces to the target entity. `["copy", "x:e", "y:*e"]` Result: `{ "x:age": 36 }`. Copies the properties ending with `e` in all namespaces starting with `x`, except those in a namespace that contains the character `y`, to the target entity.
`rename`	Arguments: PROPERTY1(string{1}) PROPERTY2(string{1}) Copies the PROPERTY1 field from the source entity to the PROPERTY2 field on the target entity. This is effectively a way to copy and rename properties from the source entity to the target entity. No wildcard patterns are supported. Note This transform function is namespaced identifiers aware. If namespaced identifiers are enabled, then the renaming makes sure that any namespaces on the target entity either keep their original namespaces or all values are collected into a single property on the target.	`["rename", "age", "current_age"]` Copies the `age` field from the source entity and adds it as `current_age` on the target entity. `["rename",` `["concat", "in-", "_S.key"],` `["concat", "out-", "_S.key"]]` Copies the value of the property returned by the first `concat` function and assigns it to the property returned by the second `concat` function. With namespaced identifiers enabled: `{` `"namespaced_identifiers": true,` `"namespaces": {` `"identity": "foo",` `"property": "bar"` `}` `}` Source entity: `{"a": 1,` `"x:a": 2}` `"xyz:a": 3}` `["rename", "a", "b"]` Result: `{ "b": 1.` `"x:b": 2,`. `"xyz:b": 3}`. Renames the `a` property in all namespaces to `b` in the same namespace. In practice this renames the identifier part of the namespaced identifiers from `a` to `b`. If PROPERTY2 only contains the identifier part of namespaced identifier, then the identifier part of PROPERTY1 will be renamed to this. `["rename", "a", "z:b"]` Result: `{"z:b": [1, 2, 3]}`. Collects all the values in the `a` property in all namespaces into the `z:b` property. If PROPERTY2 contains a fully qualified namespaced identifier then all values in PROPERTY1 will be collected into this property. `["rename", "x:a", "x:b"]` Result: `{"x:b": 2}`. Renames the `x:a` property to `x:b`.
`merge`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{1}) For each entity in VALUES copy all the properties of the value onto the target entity. If the property already exists, it will be overwritten. This means that properties from later value entities win over earlier ones.	`["merge", "_S.orders"]` Copies the properties of the entities in `_S.orders` to the target. `["merge", ["list", {"a": 1}, {"a": 2, "b": 3}]]` Add the properties `a=2` and `b=3` to the target entity. Note that `a=1` is not added because it gets overwritten with `a=2` later.
`merge-union`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{1}) For each entity in VALUES copy all the properties of the value onto the target entity. If the property already exists on the target entity, add the new values to the existing list of values.	`["merge-union", "_S.orders"]` Copies the properties of the entities in `_S.orders` to the target. Merge the property values if the property already exists. `["merge-union",` `["list", {"a": 1}, {"a": 2, "b": 3}]]` Add the properties `a=[1, 2]` and `b=[3]` to the target entity.
`create`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{1}) For each entity in VALUES emit them as new entities to the DTLs output pipeline. Note that these new entities must have an `_id` string property. Values that are not entities will be ignored.	`["create", "_S.orders"]` Emit the orders in the source entity's `orders` field as new entities. `["create", ["apply", "order", "_S.orders"]]` Emit the orders in the source entity's `orders` field as new entities, but apply the `order` transform to them first.
`create-child`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{1}) For each entity in VALUES add it to the `$children` property on the target entity. Note that the entities must have an `_id` string property. Values that are not entities will be ignored. This function is almost equivalent to: `["add", "$children",` `["union", "_T.$children", ...]]` Note that the `$children` property is special. This function should really only be used when writing into a `dataset` sink with the `track_children` property set to `true`. If an entity with a `$children` property is written to the `dataset` sink then it will compare it against the value of the `$children` property in the previous version of the entity. It will detect deleted entities and add them to the property before storing the entity. Note also that there is an `emit_children` pipe transform that can be used to expand the `$children` entities into standalone entities.	`["create-child", "_S.orders"]` Adds the orders in the source entity's `orders` field to the "$children" property on the target entity. `["create", ["apply", "order", "_S.orders"]]` Emit the orders in the source entity's `orders` field as new entities, but apply the `order` transform to them first.

Expression language ¶

An expression language function is a function that has no side-effects and returns a single value or a list of values.

Boolean logic ¶

Function	Description	Examples
`and`	Arguments: boolean-expression{>0} Takes at least one boolean expression argument. Returns true only if all arguments evaluate to true.	`["and",` `["gt", "_S.age", 26],` `["eq", "_S.gender", "male"]]` Age must be greater than 26 and the gender must be male.
`or`	Arguments: boolean-expression{>0} Takes at least one boolean expression argument. Returns true if any of the arguments evaluate to true.	`["or",` `["eq", "_S.category", "A"],` `["eq", "_S.category", "B"]]` The category field must contain "A" or "B".
`not`	Arguments: boolean-expression{>0} Takes at least one boolean expression argument. Returns the inverse boolean value. It behaves like `and`, but returns the inverse.	`["not",` `["or",` `["eq", "_S.category", "A"],` `["eq", "_S.category", "B"]]]` The category must contain neither "A" nor "B".
`all`	Arguments: FUNCTION(function-expression(0\|1} VALUES(value-expression{1}) If FUNCTION is specified, then the function is evaluated for each value in VALUES. Returns true if all arguments evaluate to true.	`["all",` `["list", 1, 2, 3]]` Returns true because all arguments evaluate to true. `["all",` `["gt", "_.", 2],` `["list", 4, 5, 6]]` Returns true because all arguments are greater than 2. `["all",` `["lt", "_.", 2],` `["list", 1, 3, 5]]` Returns false because not all arguments are less than 2.
`any`	Arguments: FUNCTION(function-expression(0\|1} VALUES(value-expression{1}) If FUNCTION is specified, then the function is evaluated for each value in VALUES. Returns true if at least one argument evaluates to true.	`["any",` `["list", 1, 2, 3]]` Returns true because all arguments evaluate to true. `["any",` `["gt", "_.", 5]]` `["list", 4, 6, 8]]` Returns true because two of the arguments are greater than 5. `["any",` `["lt", "_.", 2],` `["list", 6, 7, 8]]` Returns false because none of the arguments are less than 2.

Booleans ¶

Function	Description	Examples
`boolean`	Arguments: FUNCTION(default-value-expression(0\|1} VALUES(value-expression{1}) Translates all input values to booleans. If no default value expression is given, values that don't parse as boolean values will be silently ignored. If not, the evaluated value from the default expression will be used as a replacement value. String literals are case insensitive, and the supported values are "true" and "false". null values are evaluated as false.	`["boolean", "false"]` Returns one boolean: false. `["boolean",` `["list", "true", "~rhttp://www.bouvet.no/",` `"True", false, 1234]]` Returns a list of booleans: [true, true, false]. The URI and integer values are ignored. `["boolean", ["boolean", false],` `["list", "true", "~rhttp://www.bouvet.no/",` `"124.4", "FALSE"]]` Returns a list of booleans: [true, false, false, false]. The URI value and the string value are replaced with the literal value: false `["boolean", ["string", "n/a"],` `["list", "true", "~rhttp://www.bouvet.no/", "124.4"]]` Returns a list of booleans: [true, "n/a", "n/a"]. The URI value and the string value are replaced with the literal value "n/a" `["boolean", ["string", "_."],` `["list", "true", "~rhttp://www.bouvet.no/", "False"]]` Returns a list of booleans: [true, "http://www.bouvet.no/", false]. The URI value is replaced with its string cast.
`is-boolean`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{1}) Boolean function that returns true if value is a boolean literal or if it is a list, that the first element in the list is a boolean	`["is-boolean", false]` Returns true. `["is-boolean", "True"]` Returns false. `["is-boolean", ["list", true, "12345"]]` Returns true. `["is-boolean", ["list", "12345", true]]` Returns false. `["is-boolean", ["list", ["boolean", "FALSE"], 1234]]` Returns true.

Comparisons ¶

Function	Description	Examples
`eq`	Arguments: value-expression{2} Coerces the values returned from the value expressions into lists and compares those lists. Returns `true` if the two arguments given are equal.	`["eq", "_S.age", 42]` Returns `true` if the source entity's age field is `42`. `["eq", "_S.hobbies", ["list", "soccer", "tennis"]]` Returns `true` if the hobbies are exactly equal to `["soccer", "tennis"]`. Warning Note that the `eq` function serves a dual purpose. It can both be used for join expressions and it can be used for equality comparisons. These two are different in that a join uses intersection (similar to the `intersects` function) and the equality comparison is an exact match. Use the intersects function if you want to check for intersection/overlap instead of an exact match.
`neq`	Arguments: value-expression{2} Coerces the values returned from the value expressions into list and compares those lists. Returns `false` if the two arguments given are equal.	`["neq", "_S.age", 42]` The source entity's age field must not have the value 42.
`gt`	Arguments: value-expression{2} Compares the first value returned by the two value expressions. Returns true if the first argument is greater than the second argument.	`["gt", "_S.age", 42]` The source entity's `age` field must have a value greater than 42.
`gte`	Arguments: value-expression{2} Compares the first value returned by the two value expressions. Returns true if the first argument is greater than or equal the second argument.	`["gte", "_S.age", 42]` The source entity's `age` field must have a value greater than or equal 42.
`lt`	Arguments: value-expression{2} Compares the first value returned by the two value expressions. Returns true if the first argument is less than the second argument.	`["lt", "_S.age", 42]` The source entity's `age` field must have a value less than 42.
`lte`	Arguments: value-expression{2} Compares the first value returned by the two value expressions. Returns true if the first argument is less than or equal the second argument.	`["lte", "_S.age", 42]` The source entity's `age` field must have a value less than or equal 42.
`is-empty`	Arguments: value-expression{1} Coerces the values returned from the value expressions into list. Returns true if the number of elements in the first argument is 0.	`["is-empty", "_S.hobbies"]` Returns true if the source entity's `hobbies` field is empty (has no values).
`is-not-empty`	Arguments: value-expression{1} Coerces the values returned from the value expressions into list. Returns true if the number of elements in the first argument is greater than 0.	`["is-not-empty", "_S.hobbies"]` Returns true if the source entity's `hobbies` field is not empty (has one or more values).
`is-changed`	Arguments: FUNCTION(function-expression{1}), Returns true if the results of evaluating the FUNCTION expression on the current version and the previous version of the source entity are different. If the previous version does not exist then the `is-changed` function returns `null`. This means that we don't know if it has changed. If either the current or the previous version of the entity has `_deleted` set to `true` then the `is-changed` function returns `true`.	`["is-changed", "_.name"]` Returns true if the source entity's `name` property changed. `["is-changed", ["list", "_.height", "_.width"]]` Returns true if the source entity's `height` or `width` properties changed. `["is-changed", ["-", "_.end", "_.start"]]` Returns true if the source entity's distance between `start` and `end` changed.

If-then-else ¶

Function	Description	Examples
`if`	Arguments: CONDITION(boolean-expression{1}), THEN(value-expression{1}), ELSE(value-expression{0\|1}) If CONDITION evaluates to true then return the result of evaluating THEN. If CONDITION evaluates to false then return the result of evaluating ELSE.	`["if", ["gt", "_S.age", 42], 1, 2]` Return 1 if the source entity's `age` field is greater than 42, if not 2 is returned.

Nulls ¶

Function	Description	Examples
`is-null`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{1}) Boolean function that returns `true` if value is either `null`, an empty list, or a list where the first element in the list is `null`.	`["is-null", null]` Returns `true`. `["is-null", 1]` Returns `false`. `["is-null", ["list"]]` Returns `true`. `["is-null", ["list", null]]` Returns `true`. `["is-null", ["list", null, 123]]` Returns `true`. Note that the function only looks at the first value in the list. `["is-null", ["list", 1, "12345"]]` Returns `false`.
`is-not-null`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{1}) Boolean function that returns `false` if value is either `null`, an empty list, or a list where the first element in the list is `null`.	`["is-not-null", null]` Returns `false`. `["is-not-null", 1]` Returns `true`. `["is-not-null", ["list"]]` Returns `false`. `["is-not-null", ["list", null]]` Returns `false`. `["is-not-null", ["list", null, 123]]` Returns `false`. Note that the function only looks at the first value in the list. `["is-not-null", ["list", 1, "12345"]]` Returns `true`.
`if-null`	Arguments: VALUE(value-expression{1}) FALLBACK-VALUE(value-expression{1}) If `is-null` is false for VALUE then VALUE is returned, otherwise FALLBACK-VALUE is returned.	`["if-null", null, 2]` Returns `2`. `["if-null", 1, 2]` Returns `1`. `["if-null", ["list", null], 2]` Returns `2`. `["if-null", ["list", null, 123], 2]` Returns `2`. `["if-null", ["list", 1, "12345"], 2]` Returns `[1, "12345"]`.
`coalesce`	Arguments: FUNCTION(function-expression{0\|1}), VALUES(value-expression{1}) Returns the first value in VALUES that makes the FUNCTION expression return a trueish value. The FUNCTION expression argument is optional, so if it is not given the first non-null value in VALUES is returned.	`["coalesce", "_S.tags"]` Returns the first value in the source entity's `tags` field that is not null. `["coalesce",` `["gt", "_.expenses", 1000], "_S.hobbies"]` Returns the first hobby that has expenses greater than 1000.

Numbers ¶

Function	Description	Examples
`integer`	Arguments: FUNCTION(default-value-expression(0\|1} VALUES(value-expression{1}) Translates all input values to integers. If no default value expression is given, values that don't parse as integers will be silently ignored. If not, the evaluated value from the default expression will be used as a replacement value.	`["integer", "1"]` Returns one integer: 1. `["integer",` `["list", "1", "~rhttp://www.bouvet.no/", 124.4, 12345]]` Returns a list of integers: [1, 124, 12345]. The URI value is ignored. `["integer", ["integer", 0],` `["list", "1", "~rhttp://www.bouvet.no/", "10^2", 12345]]` Returns a list of integers: [1, 0, 0, 12345]. The URI value and the string value are replaced with the literal value 0 `["integer", ["string", "n/a"],` `["list", "1", "~rhttp://www.bouvet.no/", "10^2", 12345]]` Returns a list of integers: [1, "n/a", "n/a", 12345]. The URI value and the string value are replaced with the literal value "n/a" `["integer", ["string", "_."],` `["list", "1", "~rhttp://www.bouvet.no/", "10^2", 12345]]` Returns a list of integers: [1, "http://www.bouvet.no/", "10^2", 12345]. The URI value and the non-integer string value are replaced with the their respective string casts.
`is-integer`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{1}) Boolean function that returns true if value is an integer literal or if it is a list, that the first element in the list is an integer	`["is-integer", 1]` Returns `true`. `["is-integer", "1"]` Returns `false`. `["is-integer", ["list", 1, "12345"]]` Returns `true`. `["is-integer", ["list", "1", 2]]` Returns `false`. `["is-integer", ["list", ["integer", "1"], 2]]` Returns `true`.
`decimal`	Arguments: FUNCTION(default-value-expression(0\|1} VALUES(value-expression{1}) Translates all input values to decimals (a fractional number with unlimited precision). If no default value expression is given, values that don't parse as decimal values will be silently ignored. If not, the evaluated value from the default expression will be used as a replacement value.	`["decimal", "1.0"]` Returns one decimal value: 1.0 `["decimal",` `["list", "1.0", "~rhttp://www.bouvet.no/", 2.2, "one"]]` Returns a list of decimal values: [1.0, 2.2]. The URI and non-decimal string value are ignored. `["decimal", ["boolean", false],` `["list", "1.0", 2.1, "~rhttp://www.bouvet.no/",` `"124.4", "FALSE"]]` Returns [1.0, 2.1, false, 124.4, false]. The URI value and the non-decimal string value are replaced with the literal value: false `["decimal", ["string", "n/a"],` `["list", "1.0", 2.0, "~rhttp://www.bouvet.no/", "124.4"]]` Returns [1.0, 2.0, "n/a", 124.4]. The URI value is replaced with the literal value "n/a". `["decimal", ["string", "_."],` `["list", "1.0", 2.0, "~rhttp://www.bouvet.no/", "2.5"]]` Returns [1.0, 2.0, "http://www.bouvet.no/", 2.5]. The URI value is replaced with its string cast.
`is-decimal`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{1}) Boolean function that returns true if value is a decimal literal or if it is a list, that the first element in the list is a decimal	`["is-decimal", 1.0]` Returns false (it is a float literal). `["is-decimal", ["decimal", "1.23"]]` Returns true. `["is-decimal", 1]` Returns false. `["is-decimal", ["list", 1.0, "12345"]]` Returns false. `["is-decimal", ["list", "1.0", 2.0]]` Returns false. `["is-decimal", ["list", ["decimal", "-1.0"], 1234]]` Returns true.
`float`	Arguments: FUNCTION(default-value-expression(0\|1} VALUES(value-expression{1}) Translates all input values to floats (a IEEE 754 binary 64 format). if no default value expression is given, values that don't parse as float values will be silently ignored. If not, the evaluated value from the default expression will be used as a replacement value. Note that if you cast decimals to floats you can lose precision.	`["float", "1.0"]` Returns one float value: 1.0 `["float",` `["list", "1.0", "~rhttp://www.bouvet.no/", 2.2, "one"]]` Returns a list of float values: [1.0, 2.2]. The URI and non-numeric string value are ignored. `["float", ["boolean", false],` `["list", "1.0", 2.1, "~rhttp://www.bouvet.no/",` `"124.4", "FALSE"]]` Returns [1.0, 2.1, false, 124.4, false]. The URI value and the non-numeric string value are replaced with the literal value: false `["float", ["string", "n/a"],` `["list", "1.0", 2.0, "~rhttp://www.bouvet.no/", "124.4"]]` Returns [1.0, 2.0, "n/a", 124.4]. The URI value is replaced with the literal value "n/a". `["float", ["string", "_."],` `["list", "1.0", 2.0, "~rhttp://www.bouvet.no/", "2.5"]]` Returns [1.0, 2.0, "http://www.bouvet.no/", 2.5]. The URI value is replaced with its string cast.
`is-float`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{1}) Boolean function that returns true if value is a float literal or if it is a list, that the first element in the list is a float value	`["is-float", 1.0]` Returns true. `["is-float", ["decimal", "1.23"]]` Returns false (it is a decimal literal). `["is-float", 1]` Returns false. `["is-float", ["list", 1.0, "12345"]]` Returns true. `["is-float", ["list", "1.0", 2.0]]` Returns false. `["is-float", ["list", ["decimal", "-1.0"], 123.4]]` Returns false.

Date and time ¶

Function	Description	Examples
`now`	Arguments: NONE(value-expression{0}) Returns the current time as a datetime value.	`["now"]` Returns the current time as a datetime value, e.g. "~t2016-05-13T14:32:00.431Z".
`datetime`	Arguments: FUNCTION(default-value-expression(0\|1} VALUES(value-expression{1}) Translates all input values to datetime values. If no default value expression is given, values that don't parse as datetime values will be silently ignored. If not, the evaluated value from the default expression will be used as a replacement value.	`["datetime", "2015-07-28T09:46:00.12345Z"]` Returns one datetime value: "~t2015-07-28T09:46:00.12345Z". `["datetime", 1438076760123450000]` Returns one datetime value: "~t2015-07-28T09:46:00.12345Z". Note that integer values are treated as nanoseconds since "1970-01-01T00:00:00Z". Negative integer values are interpreted as nanoseconds before that. `["datetime", ["list", ["now"], ["now"], "hello"]]` Returns a list of two datetime values which both are the current time. The "hello" string is ignored. `["datetime", ["now"], "hello"]` Returns the current time as a datetime value, e.g. "~t2016-05-13T14:32:00.431Z". Note that this was created by the function argument.
`datetime-parse`	Arguments: TIMEZONE_NAME(string{0\|1}) FORMATSTRING(string{1}) VALUES(value-expression{}) Translates all input values to datetime values. The values must be strings matching the format string given. Any values that don't parse as datetime values will be silently ignored. The timezone name defaults to "UTC". The datetime string will be interpreted as being in this timezone. Click here to see the list of supported timezones. The supported formatting tokens are: %d - day of the month (01 to 31) %e - day of the month (1 to 31) %H - hour, using a 24-hour clock (00 to 23) %I - hour, using a 12-hour clock (01 to 12) %m - month (01 to 12) %M - minute %p - either am or pm according to the given time value %S - second %f - microsecond as a decimal number, zero-padded on the left %y - year without a century (range 00 to 99) %Y - year including the century %z - UTC offset in the form +HHMM, -HHMM, +HH:MM or -HH:MM. If present, this token must be the last token in the format string. %% - a literal % character Note When using `%y`, then the two digits are converted according to the POSIX and ISO C standards; 00-68 are mapped to the years 2000-2068 and 69-99 are mapped to the years 1969-1999.	`["datetime-parse",` `"%Y-%m-%dT%H:%M:%S.%fZ",` `"2015-07-28T09:46:00.12345Z"]` Returns one datetime value: "~t2015-07-28T09:46:00.12345Z". `["datetime-parse",` `"%Y-%m-%dT%H:%M:%S%z",` `"2015-07-28T09:46:00+0200"]` Returns one datetime value: "~t2015-07-28T07:46:00Z". `["datetime-parse", "%d.%m.%Y", "28.07.2015"]` Returns one datetime value: "~t2015-07-28T00:00:00Z". `["datetime-parse",` `"%d.%m.%Y", ["list", "28.07.2015", "01.01.1970"]` Returns two datetime values: ["~t2015-07-28T00:00:00Z", "~t1970-01-01T00:00:00Z"] `["datetime-parse", "Europe/Oslo"` `"%Y-%m-%dT%H:%M:%S",` `"2018-08-18T12:39:01"]` Returns one datetime value: "~t2018-08-08T10:39:01Z".
`datetime-format`	Arguments: TIMEZONE_NAME(string{0\|1}) FORMATSTRING(string{1}) VALUES(value-expression{}) Translates all input datetime values to strings. The strings will be formattet according to the format string. Any values that aren't datetime values will be silently ignored. Note that precision loss is possible since `datetime` objects internally have nanoseconds precision while the formatted strings will only support microseconds (using the seconds fraction token `%f`). The timezone name defaults to "UTC". The datetime value will be translated to this timezone before it is formatted. Click here to see the list of supported timezones. Note When using `%y`, then the years are converted according to the POSIX and ISO C standards; the years 2000-2068 are mapped to 00-68 and the years 1969-1999 are mapped to 69-99. For years outside of that range the last two digits are used.	`["datetime-format", "%Y-%m-%dT%H:%M:%SZ",` `["datetime-parse", "%Y-%m-%d", "2015-07-28"]]` Returns one string: "2015-07-28T00:00:00Z". `["datetime-format",` `"%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S",` `["datetime-parse",` `"%Y-%m-%dT%H:%M:%S",` `"2018-08-18T12:39:01"]` Returns one string: "2018-08-08 12:39:01". `["datetime-format", "Europe/Oslo",` `"%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S",` `["datetime-parse",` `"%Y-%m-%dT%H:%M:%S",` `"2018-08-18T12:39:01"]` Returns one string: "2018-08-08 14:39:01". `["datetime-format", "Europe/Oslo",` `"%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S",` `["datetime-parse", "Europe/Oslo",` `"%Y-%m-%dT%H:%M:%S",` `"2018-08-18T12:39:01"]` Returns one string: "2018-08-08 12:39:01". See `datetime-parse` for the supported tokens in the format string.
`datetime-plus`	Arguments: DATEPART(string{1}) VALUE(integer{1}) VALUES(value-expression{}) Adds a fixed `VALUE` number (positive or negative) of `DATEPART` values to the the input values, producing new datetime objects. `DATEPART` can be one of the following values: `year` `month` `week` `day` `hour` `minute` `second` `millisecond` `microsecond` `nanosecond`	`["datetime-plus", "day", 1, ["datetime-parse",` `"%Y-%m-%d", "2015-07-28"]]` Returns one datetime value: `"~t2015-07-29T00:00:00Z"`. `["datetime-plus", "hour", -1, ["datetime-parse",` `"%Y-%m-%d", "2016-03-01"]]` Returns one datetime value: `"~t2016-02-29T23:00:00Z"`. `["datetime-plus", "year", 1,` `["list",` `["datetime-parse",` `"%Y-%m-%d", "1971-01-01"],` `["datetime-parse",` `"%Y-%m-%d", "1950-06-01"]]` Returns two datetime values: `["~t1972-01-01T00:00:00Z",` `"~t1951-06-01T00:00:00Z"]`.
`datetime-diff`	Arguments: DATEPART(string{1}) STARTDATE(value-expression{1}) ENDDATE(value-expression{1}) Computes the positive or negative number of `DATEPART` values between the end and start date input values `DATEPART` can be one of the following values: `year` `month` `week` `day` `hour` `minute` `second` `millisecond` `microsecond` `nanosecond` Note that the return values are rounded downwards to the nearest (absolute) integer value, i.e. +-11 months is 0 years and +-8 days is +-1 week.	`["datetime-diff", "day",` `["datetime-parse", "%Y-%m-%d", "2015-07-28"],` `["datetime-parse", "%Y-%m-%d", "2015-07-29"]]` Returns one integer value: -1 `["datetime-diff", "day",` `["datetime-parse", "%Y-%m-%d", "2015-07-29"],` `["datetime-parse", "%Y-%m-%d", "2015-07-28"]]` Returns one integer value: 1 `["datetime-diff", "year",` `["datetime-parse", "%Y-%m-%d", "2015-03-02"],` `["datetime-parse", "%Y-%m-%d", "2016-07-29"]]` Returns: -1 `["datetime-diff", "month",` `["datetime-parse", "%Y-%m-%d", "2015-03-02"],` `["datetime-parse", "%Y-%m-%d", "2016-07-29"]]` Returns: -16
`datetime-shift`	Arguments: FROM_TIMEZONE(string{1}) TO_TIMEZONE(string{1}) VALUES(value-expression{}) Shifts all the input datetime values from one timezone to another timezone. Any values that aren't datetime values will be silently ignored. Click here to see the list of supported timezones. Internally, SESAM stores datetimes as UTC, and timezone converting is usually done automatically by the datasources. Sometimes, though, there is need to explicitly convert a timezone in a non-UTC timezone into some other timezone; An example is if you are reading from a CSV-file where one of the columns is a date-string with no explicit timezone information, but where you know that the dates are in some non-UTC timezone. In this case you could use the datetime-shift function to convert the dates from the CSV-file into correct UTC datetimes. \|	`["datetime-shift", "Europe/Oslo", "UTC",` `["datetime-parse",` `"%Y/%m/%d %H:%M", "2015/07/28 09:46"]]` Returns one datetime value: `"~t2015-07-28T07:46:00Z"`. `["datetime-shift", "UTC", "Europe/Oslo",` `["datetime-parse",` `"%Y/%m/%d %H:%M", "2015/07/28 09:46"]]` Returns one datetime value: `"~t2015-07-28T11:46:00Z"`. `["datetime-shift", "Europe/Oslo", "UTC",` `["list",` `["datetime-parse",` `"%Y/%m/%d %H:%M", "2015/07/28 09:46"],` `["datetime-parse",` `"%Y/%m/%d %H:%M", "2015/07/28 04:46"]]` Returns two datetime values: `["~t2015-07-28T07:46Z:00",` `"~t2015-07-28T02:46Z:00"]`.
`is-datetime`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{1}) Boolean function that returns true if value is a datetime value or if it is a list, that the first element in the list is a datetime value.	`["is-datetime", ["now"]]` Returns true. `["is-datetime",` `["datetime", "2015-07-28T09:46:00.12345Z"]]` Returns true. `["is-datetime", "2015-07-28T09:46:00.12345Z"]` Returns false. `["is-datetime", ["list", "1", 2]]` Returns false.

Strings ¶

Function	Description	Examples
`string`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{1}) Translates all input values to strings. Note Complex types like list and dict are JSON encoded (no transit encoding).	`["string", 1]` Returns one string: `1`. `["string", "hello"]` Returns one string: `hello`. `["string",` `["list", "abc", ["list", 1, 2, 3],` `{"b": 2, "a": 1}, ["uri", "http://www.bouvet.no/"],` `124.4, 12345]]` Returns a list of strings: `["abc", "[1, 2, 3]", "{\"a\": 1, \"b\": 2}",` `"http://www.bouvet.no/", "124.4", "12345"]`.
`is-string`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{1}) Boolean function that returns true if value is a string literal or if it is a list, that the first element in the list is a string	`["is-string", "foo:bar"]` Returns true. `["is-string", 1]` Returns false. `["is-string", ["list", "foo:bar", 12345]]` Returns true `["is-string", ["list", 1, "foo:bar"]]` Returns false
`upper`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{1}) Returns the uppercase version of its input strings. Non-string values are ignored.	`["upper", ["list", "a", "b", "c"]]` Returns `["A", "B", "C"]`. `["upper", "_S.name"]` Returns an uppercased version of the source entity's name.
`lower`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{1}) Returns the lowercase version of its input strings. Non-string values are ignored.	`["lower", ["list", "A", "B", "C"]]` Returns `["a", "b", "c"]`. `["lower", "_S.name"]` Returns a lowercased version of the source entity's name.
`length`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{1}) Returns the length (number of characters) of its input strings. Non-string values are ignored.	`["length", ["list", "", "a", "bb", "ccc"]]` Returns `[0, 1, 2, 3]`. `["length", "_S.name"]` Returns the length of the source entity's name.
`concat`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{>1}) Returns a concatenated string of its input strings. Non-string values are ignored.	`["concat", ["list", "a", "b", "c"]]` Returns `"abc"`. `["concat", "_S.tags"]` Returns a concatenated version of the source entity's tags. `["concat", "Hello ", "_S.name", "!"]` Returns `"Hello John!"` if the `name` property is `John`. `["concat", "a", ["list", "b", "c"], "d", 123, ["list", "!"]]` Returns `"abcd!"`. `["concat", 123, 3.14]` Returns `""`, because non-string values are ignored.
`join`	Arguments: SEPARATOR(string{1}) VALUES(value-expression{1}) Returns a string created by joining its input strings by SEPARATOR. Non-string values are ignored.	`["join", "-", ["list", "a", "b", 123, "c"]]` Returns `"a-b-c"`. `["join", "-", "_S.tags"]` Returns a joined string of the source entity's tags separated by dashes.
`split`	Arguments: SEPARATOR(string{0\|1}) VALUES(value-expression{1}) Returns a list of strings created by splitting its input strings by SEPARATOR. Non-string values are ignored.	`["split", "-", "a-b-c"]` Returns `["a", "b", "c"]`. `["split", "-", ["list", "a-b", "c-d", "e"]]` Returns `["a", "b", "c", "d", "e"]`. `["split", "-", "_S.uuid"]` Returns a list of strings of the source entity's tags separated by dashes.
`strip`	Arguments: CHARACTERS(string{0\|1}) VALUES(value-expression{1}) Returns a version of its input strings where characters in CHARACTERS are removed from both sides. Non-string values are ignored. The default value of CHARACTERS is all whitespace characters.	`["strip", ["list", " ab ", "cd ", "ef"]]` Returns `["ab", "cd", "ef"]`. `["strip", " abc"]]` Returns `"abc"`. `["strip", "_S.name"]` Returns a stripped version of the source entity's name where whitespace is removed. `["strip", "xy", ["list", "123xyx", "xy456yx"]]` Returns `["123", "456"]`.
`lstrip`	Arguments: CHARACTERS(string{0\|1}) VALUES(value-expression{1}) Returns a version of its input strings where characters in CHARACTERS are removed from the left side. Non-string values are ignored. The default value of CHARACTERS is all whitespace characters.	`["lstrip", ["list", " ab ", "cd ", "ef"]]` Returns `["ab ", "cd ", "ef"]`. `["lstrip", " abc"]]` Returns `"abc"`. `["lstrip", "_S.name"]` Returns a stripped version of the source entity's name where whitespace is removed from the left. `["lstrip", "xy", ["list", "123xyx", "xy456yx"]]` Returns `["123xyx", "456yx"]`.
`rstrip`	Arguments: CHARACTERS(string{0\|1}) VALUES(value-expression{1}) Returns a version of its input strings where characters in CHARACTERS are removed from the right side. Non-string values are ignored. The default value of CHARACTERS is all whitespace characters.	`["rstrip", ["list", " ab ", "cd ", "ef"]]` Returns `[" ab", "cd", "ef"]`. `["rstrip", " abc"]]` Returns `" abc"`. `["rstrip", "_S.name"]` Returns a stripped version of the source entity's name where whitespace is removed from the right. `["rstrip", "xy", ["list", "123xyx", "xy456yx"]]` Returns `["123", "xy456"]`.
`replace`	Arguments: OLD_STRING(string{1}) NEW_STRING(string{1}) VALUES(value-expression{1}) Replaces occurrences of OLD_STRING with NEW_STRING in VALUES. Non-string values are ignored.	`["replace", "http://", "https://",` `"http://www.sesam.io/"]` Returns `"https://www.sesam.io/"`. `["replace", ":", ".", "_S.date"]]` Returns a date string where the colon has been replaced by a period.
`substring`	Arguments: START_INDEX(integer{1}) END_INDEX(integer{0\|1}) VALUES(value-expression{1}) Extracts the substring between START_INDEX and END_INDEX. If the indexes are negative they start from the end.	`["substring", 2, 4, "abcdef"]` Returns `"cd"`. `["substring", 2, "abcdef"]` Returns `"cdef"`. `["substring", -3, -1, "abcdef"]` Returns `"de"`.
`matches`	Arguments: PATTERN(string{1}) VALUES(value-expression{1}) Returns true if all the values in VALUES match the pattern in PATTERN. The '*' and '?' wildcard characters can be used. Non-string values are not matched and will cause the function to return false. If PATTERN contains multiple string values then only the first one is used.	`["matches", "apa", ["list", "alpha", alpaca"]]` Returns `true`. `["matches", "*_sport", "_S.tags"]` Returns true if all the tags that have a "_sport" suffix.
`encrypt`	Arguments: KEY(string{1}) VALUES(value-expression{1}) Encrypts the VALUES using the key in KEY the data wil be encrypted using a symmetric Fernet algorithm with the key as the password. Note that this function by itself does not offer an end-to-end secure system of encryption as the key is stored along with the encrypted data. This applies even when using a `$SECRET(secret key)` via the secrets manager.	`["encrypt", "secret", ["list", "a", "b", "c"]]` Returns an encrypted bytes object.
`encrypt-pki`	Arguments: PUBLIC_KEY(string{1}) VALUES(value-expression{1}) Encrypts the strings in VALUES using the public key in PUBLIC_KEY Note that this function requires the VALUES parameter to either be a string or a list of strings so if you want to encrypt some property that is not a string or a list of strings, you must convert it this form first, for example using the `json` or `json-transit` serialize functions. The PUBLIC_KEY parameter must be a RSA public key in PEM format (PKCSv8, which starts with the header "-----BEGIN PUBLIC KEY-----"). The input is encrypted using an asymmetric RSA 2048 bits encryption algorithm - to decrypt the data you must use the corresponding private key. See `decrypt-pki`. Note that this function can't encrypt large strings, it is intended to encrypt shorter passphrases or similar identifiers. Use the `encrypt-pgp` function instead if you need to encrypt larger blocks of data.	`["encrypt-pki", "RSA_PEM_public_key", ["json-transit", ["list", "a", "b", "c"]]]` Returns a list of bytes objects: `["~bDHAERS..", "~bHDURKSS..", "~bXYSERS.."]` `["encrypt-pki", "RSA_PEM_public_key", "secret-passphrase"]` Returns a single bytes object: `"~bDHAERS.."`
`encrypt-pgp`	Arguments: PUBLIC_KEY(string{1}) VALUES(value-expression{1}) Encrypts the strings in VALUES in OpenPGP format using the PGP public key in PUBLIC_KEY Note that this function requires the VALUES parameter to either be a string or a list of strings so if you want to encrypt some property that is not a string or a list of strings, you must convert it this form first, for example using the `json` or `json-transit` serialize functions. The PUBLIC_KEY parameter must be a PGP public key which starts with the header "-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY-----"). The resulting encrypted data is stored in OpenPGP form (RFC4880, https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4880) To decrypt the data you must use the corresponding private key and associated password. See `decrypt-pgp`.	`["encrypt-pgp", "OpenPGP_public_key", ["json-transit", ["list", "a", "b", "c"]]]` Returns a list of strings in OpenPGP ASCII format: `["----BEGIN PGP MESSAGE..", "----BEGIN PGP MESSAGE..", "----BEGIN PGP MESSAGE.."]` `["encrypt-pgp", "OpenPGP_public_key", "secret-message"]` Returns a single OpenPGP message in ASCII format: `"----BEGIN PGP MESSAGE.."`
`decrypt`	Arguments: KEY(string{1}) VALUES(value-expression{1}) The key is assumed to be a matching password used by a previous `encrypt` function, i.e. it is symmetric with `encrypt` if the same key is used:	`["decrypt", "secret", ["encrypt", "secret", ["list", "a", "b", "c"]]]` Returns `["a", "b", "c"]`
`decrypt-pki`	Arguments: PRIVATE_KEY(string{1}) VALUES(value-expression{1}) Decrypts the bytes objects in VALUES using the private key in PRIVATE_KEY. Note that this function requires the VALUES parameter to either be a single bytes object or a list of bytes objects. The PRIVATE_KEY parameter must be a RSA private key in PEM format (PKSv8, which starts with the header "-----BEGIN RSA PRIVATE KEY-----"). The bytes data in VALUE is then decrypted to a string using the asymmetric RSA 2048 bits algorithm - the data must have been encrypted with the corresponding public key. If the data is encoded as a string, it must be cast (for example using `datetime-parse`) or decoded using an appropriate function such as `json-parse` or `json-transit-parse`.	`["json-transit-parse",` `["decrypt-pki", "-----BEGIN RSA PRIVATE KEY-----..-----END RSA PRIVATE KEY-----",` `["encrypt-pki", "-----BEGIN PUBLIC KEY-----..-----END PUBLIC KEY-----",` `["json-transit", ["list", ["list", "a", "b", "c"]]]]]` Returns `["a", "b", "c"]`
`decrypt-pgp`	Arguments: PRIVATE_KEY(string{1}) PASSPHRASE(string{1}) VALUES(value-expression{1}) Decrypts the strings in VALUES in OpenPGP format using the PGP private key in PRIVATE_KEY and the password in PASSPHRASE. Note that this function requires the VALUES parameter to either be a string or a list of strings in OpenPGP message format (these are ASCII strings starting with the header "----BEGIN PGP MESSAGE..", see RFC4880, https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4880). The PRIVATE_KEY parameter must be a PGP private key which starts with the header "-----BEGIN PGP PRIVATE KEY-----") and the password in PASSPHRASE must match this key so it can be unlocked.	`["decrypt-pgp", "-----BEGIN PGP PRIVATE KEY..", "valid-password",` `["encrypt-pgp", "-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY..", ["list", "data", "data2"]]]` Returns a list: `["data", "data2"]` `["decrypt-pgp", "-----BEGIN PGP PRIVATE KEY..", "valid-password",` `["encrypt-pgp", "-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY..", "secret message"]]` Returns a string: `"secret message"`

JSON ¶

Function	Description	Examples
`json`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{1}) Translates all input values to JSON strings (no transit encoding). The keys of dicts are sorted lexically.	`["json", 1]` Returns one string: `"1"`. `["json", "hello"]` Returns one string: `"\"hello\""`. `["json",` `["list", "abc", ["list", 1, 2, 3],` `{"b": 2, "a": 1}, ["uri", "http://www.bouvet.no/"],` `124.4, 12345]]` Returns a list of strings: `["\"abc\"", "[1, 2, 3]", "{\"a\": 1, \"b\": 2}",` `"http://www.bouvet.no/", "124.4", "12345"]`.
`json-transit`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{1}) Translates all input values to transit encoded JSON strings. The keys of dicts are sorted lexically. This function behaves like the `json` function, except that it transit encodes values.	`["json-transit", 1]` Returns one string: `"1"`. `["json-transit", "hello"]` Returns one string: `"\"hello\""`. `["json-transit",` `["list", "abc", ["list", 1, 2, 3],` `{"b": 2, "a": 1}, ["uri", "http://www.bouvet.no/"],` `124.4, 12345]]` Returns a list of strings: `["\"abc\"", "[1, 2, 3]", "{\"a\": 1, \"b\": 2}",` `"~rhttp://www.bouvet.no/", "124.4", "12345"]`.
`json-parse`	Arguments: FUNCTION(default-value-expression(0\|1} VALUES(value-expression{1}) Parses all input values as JSON strings (no transit decoding). If no default value expression is given, then invalid values that don't parse as valid JSON will be silently ignored. If not, the evaluated value from the default expression will be used as a replacement value.	`["json-parse", "1"]` Returns one number: `1`. `["json-parse", "\"hello\""]` Returns one string: `"hello"`. `["is-uri", ["json-parse",` `"\"~rhttp://www.bouvet.no/\""]]` Returns `false`. `["json-parse", "{\"a\": 1, \"b\": 2}"` Returns a dictionary: `{"a": 1, "b": 2}",` `["json-parse", "hello"]` Returns `null` because `hello` is not a valid JSON string. `["json-parse",` `["list", "hello", "123", "null",` `"\"abc\"", "\"~rhttp://example.org/\""]]` Returns `[123, null, "abc", "~rhttp://example.org/"]`. Note that `null` is a valid JSON expression, so `null` is included in the result list. Note also that `"~rhttp://www.bouvet.no/"` is not parsed as a URI since we don't do transit decoding here. `["json-parse", "no-value", "hello"]` Returns `"no-value"` because `hello` is not a valid JSON string. `["json-parse", "no-value", "null"]` Returns `null` because `"null"` is a valid JSON string.
`json-transit-parse`	Arguments: FUNCTION(default-value-expression(0\|1} VALUES(value-expression{1}) Parses all input values as transit-encoded JSON strings. If no default value expression is given, then invalid values that don't parse as valid JSON will be silently ignored. If not, the evaluated value from the default expression will be used as a replacement value. This function behaves like the `json-parse` function, except that it transit decodes values.	`["json-transit-parse", "1"]` Returns one number: `1`. `["json-transit-parse", "\"hello\""]` Returns one string: `"hello"`. `["is-uri", ["json-transit-parse",` `"\"~rhttp://www.bouvet.no/\""]]` Returns `true`. `["json-transit-parse", "hello"]` Returns `null` because `hello` is not a valid JSON string. `["json-transit-parse",` `["list", "hello", "123", "null",` `"\"abc\"", "\"~rhttp://example.org/\""]]` Returns `[123, null, "abc", "~rhttp://example.org/"]`. Note that `null` is a valid JSON expression, so `null` is included in the result list. Note also that "~rhttp://www.bouvet.no/" is parsed as a URI since we are doing transit decoding. `["json-transit-parse",` `"no-value", "~rhttp://example.org/"]` Returns `"no-value"` because `~rhttp://example.org/` is not a valid JSON string. `["is-uri",` `["json-transit-parse",` `"no-value", "\"~rhttp://example.org/\""]]` Returns `true` because `"\"~rhttp://example.org/\""` is a valid JSON string and the return value is a URI.

URIs ¶

Function	Description	Examples
`uri`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{1}) Translates input values to URIs. Only strings in VALUES will be cast to URIs. Note that no URI escaping is done on the strings.	`["uri", "http://www.bouvet.no/"]` Returns one URI. `["uri",` `["list", "http://www.bouvet.no/",` `"http://www.sesam.io/", 12345]]` Returns a list of two URIs. The number is silently ignored because it is not a string.
`is-uri`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{1}) Boolean function that returns true if value is a URI literal, or if it is a list, that the first element in the list is a URI.	`["is-uri", ["uri", "foo:bar"]]` Returns `true`. `["is-uri", "foo:bar"]` Returns `false`. `["is-uri", ["list", ["uri", "foo:bar"], 12345]]` Returns `true`. `["is-uri", ["list", 1, ["uri", "foo:bar"]]]` Returns `false`.
`url-quote`	Arguments: SAFE_CHARS(string{0\|1}) VALUES(value-expression{1}) Returns the URL quoted versions of any string or list of strings in the argument list. Any non-strings are ignored and is not returned in the result. Returns either a single string (if the input is a single string literal) or a list (of strings). If you want some ASCII characters to not be encoded, e.g. the slash character `/`, then specify the `SAFE_CHARS` argument. The default value is "". The `SAFE_CHARS` argument must be a string that contains zero or more ASCII characters that should not be encoded. Note that this only is applicable for ASCII characters.	`["url-quote", "/foo bar/baz"]` Returns `%2Ffoo%20bar%2Fbaz`. Note that the `/` characters have been encoded. To avoid this you can add the SAFE_CHARS argument: `["url-quote", "/", "/foo bar/baz"]` Returns `/foo%20bar/baz`. `["url-quote",` `["list", "å", 1, 2,` `["uri", "http://example.com"], "foo bar"]]` Returns `["%C3%A5", "foo%20bar]`.
`url-unquote`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{1}) Returns the URL unquoted versions of any string or list of strings in the argument list. Any non-strings are ignored and is not returned in the result. Returns either a single string (if the input is a single string literal) or a list (of strings).	`["url-unquote", "%2Ffoo%20bar%2Fbaz"]` Returns `/foo bar/baz`. `["url-quote",` `["list", 1, "%C3%A5", ["uri", "http://example.com"], "foo%20bar"]` Returns `["å", "foo bar"]`.

UUIDs ¶

Function	Description	Examples
`uuid`	Arguments: NONE(value-expression{0}) Create a new UUID object.	`["uuid"]` Returns a new UUID object on the form "~u9f598f65-eea5-4906-a8f5-82f6d8e69726".

Nested transformations ¶

Function	Description	Examples
`apply`	Arguments: RULE_ID(string{1}), VALUES(value-expression{1}) Applies the RULE_ID transform rule on the entities in VALUES. RULE_ID must be the id of a transform rule in the current DTL specification.	`["apply", "order", "_S.orders"]` This will transform the order entities in the source entity's `orders` field using the `order` transform rules. The output is the transformed order entities.
`apply-hops`	Arguments: RULE_ID(string{1}), HOPS_SPEC(dict{>1}) This function is a combined `hops` and `apply` function. It evaluates the hops, and then passes the result through the RULE_ID transform rule. See the apply and the hops functions for more information about the parts. Note Use this function instead of `apply` if you use `hops` inside the transformation rule. This is required so that dependency tracking can work. Calling `apply` on a rule that contains `hops` or `apply-hops` is not allowed.	`["apply-hops", "order", {` `"datasets": ["orders o"],` `"where": ["eq", "_S._id", "o.cust_id"]` `}]` This will retrieve orders from the hops expression and then transform them using the `order` transformation rule. The output is the transformed order entities.

Paths ¶

Function	Description	Examples
`path`	Arguments: PROPERTY_PATH(value-expression{1}), VALUES(value-expression{1}) Traverses the PROPERTY_PATH path for each of the entities in VALUES. The result is all the values at the end of the traversal. This may be a single value or a list of values. PROPERTY_PATH is an expression that should resolve to a string or a list of strings. Those strings are treated as literals, i.e. property names, so no variables can be used. Only properties on the entity can be traversed. If you want to traverse to other entities use the `hops` function instead. Note This transform function is namespaced identifiers aware. If namespaced identifiers are enabled and the path element is not a fully qualified namespaced identifier then all properties with the path element as its identifier part will be part of the result. In practice the result is the union of all those properties.	`["path", "age", ["list", {"age": 23}, {"age": 24}]]` Traverses the `age` field of the VALUES entities. Returns `[23, 24]`. `["path", ["list", "order_lines", "item_name"], "_S.orders"]` This will traverse from the source entity's orders to the order lines and then return their item names. The output is a list of product item names. `["path", "age", {"age": 24}]` Returns `24`. `["path", "foo", {"bar": 123}]` Returns `null`. `["path", ["list", "a", "b"],` `["list", {"a": {"b": 1}}, {"a": [{"b": 2}, {"b": 3}]}]]` Returns `[1, 2, 3]`. With namespaced identifiers enabled: `{` `"namespaced_identifiers": true,` `"namespaces": {` `"identity": "foo",` `"property": "bar"` `}` `}` `["path", "foo:a", {"a": 1, "foo:a": 2, "bar:a": [3, 4]}]` Returns `2` as the path element `"foo:a"` is a fully qualified namespaced identifier. `["path", "a", {"a": 1, "foo:a": 2, "bar:a": [3, 4]}]` Returns `[1, 2, 3, 4]`, i.e. the union of all the values in all the properties that have `a` in their identifiers part. `["path", "::a", {"a": 1, "foo:a": 2, "bar:a": [3, 4]}]` Returns `1` as `"::a"` uses the NI escape syntax to explicity reference the unqualified `a` property. `["path", ":a", {"a": 1, "foo:a": 2, "bar:a": [3, 4]}]` Returns `[3, 4]` as `":a"` uses the NI escape syntax to explicity reference the `"a"` property in the current namespace `"bar"`.

Hops ¶

Function	Description	Examples
`hops`	Arguments: HOPS_SPEC(dict{>1}) The HOPS_SPEC is a dictionary that takes the following keys: `datasets`: A list of strings with the dataset id whitespace separated by the dataset alias. The database aliases can be referenced in the `where` clause. The list must contain at least one element. `where`: An expression or a list of expressions. If it is a list, then the expressions in the list will be wrapped with the `and` function. The expressions are then evaluated to perform the joins. `recurse`: OPTIONAL. A boolean. The default is false. If true, then HOPS_SPEC should be traversed recursively. This makes it possible for a hops expression to be recursive. The output of one evaluation is fed as the input to the next evaluation until there are no more output. At that point the execution is moved on to the next HOPS_SPEC in the chain. `exclude_root`: OPTIONAL. A boolean. The default is false. If true, then the original input to the recursion will not be included in the final output. This property is only meaningful on a HOP_SPEC where `recurse` is `true`. `max_depth`: OPTIONAL. An integer. The default is `10`. The recursion will stop after the given number of recursion levels. A value of `2` means that the recursion will happen at most two times. Set it to `null` if you want the recursion will run until its output is exhausted. This property is only meaningful on a HOP_SPEC where `recurse` is `true`. `return`: OPTIONAL. A string, or an expression, or not specified. If it is a string, then it should refer to a comma separated list of dataset aliases. In that case all the values of those aliases will be returned. If it is an expression then the expression is evaluated on the hops result and its result is returned. If not specified, then it will return the last dataset alias in the list. This is the default. It can only be specified on the last HOP_SPEC argument. `return` cannot be used with `recurse`. `track-dependencies`: OPTIONAL. A boolean. The default is true. Can be used to disable dependency tracking for this particular HOP_SPEC. `trace`: OPTIONAL. A string. The default is not set. If set, it is used to enable gathering of statistics for the execution of the `hops` function during runtime. Currently this tracks the maximum cardinality of the join statements in the `hops`. This information will be available in the pipe execution log in the `pump-completed` and `pump-failed` entities. The value of the `trace` property should be unique to the particular `hops` function as it will be used to key the statistics gathered about its execution. The `trace` property should only be specified on the last HOP_SPEC argument. If multiple HOP_SPEC arguments are given, then the output of a HOP_SPEC is passed on as the input to the next. This is a convenient way of chaining hops together. It is mostly useful when at least one of the HOP_SPEC arguments use recursion. The join criteria are described by using the `eq` function. All dataset aliases defined in the `datasets` key have to be joined and all must by navigable from the source entity. If that is not the case, then an error will be raised at compile time. The `hops` function produces a table inside, one column per dataset alias. This table is the projected down into a list of values by the `return` clause that is then returned by the function. Note that the result of the `hops` function is deterministic based on the `_id` property of the entities processed within each dataset. I.e.. re-running a DTL transform with a `hops` function using the exact same entities in the source and in the datasets in the `datasets` property will yield the same order of the result. You should apply a `sorted*` function to the result to get a particular order (for example on a particular property, or if you use the `return` keyword).	["hops", { "datasets": ["Address a", "Country c"], "return": "a", "where": [ ["or", ["eq", "a.type", "SHIPPING"], ["eq", "a.type", "BILLING"]], ["eq", "_S.address", "a._id"], ["eq", "c._id", "a.country"] ]}] Join the source entity's `address` property with the `Address`'s `_id` property, and then the `Address`'s `country` property with `Country`'s `_id` property. Filter the addresses by type, so that only shipping and billing addresses are included in the result. Return the addresses found. ["hops", { "datasets": ["Person p"], "where": [ ["eq", "_S.children", "p._id"], ["eq", "p.gender", "female"]], "recurse": true }, { "datasets": ["Hobby h"], "where": ["eq", "_S.hobbies", "h._id"], "return": "h.name" }] Recursively retrieve the source entity's daughters (and granddaughters and so on) and then return the names of all their hobbies. Please note that the result list is not automatically sorted on the `name` property - if order matters, a `sorted` function must be applied before the result is used.

Entity lookups ¶

Function	Description	Examples
`reference`	Arguments: DATASET_ID(string{1}) ENTITY_IDS(value-expression{}) Returns a URI that can be used to reference entities in the given dataset. The DATASET_ID and ENTITY_IDS parts will be URI path encoded. URIs of this type can be resolved using the `lookup` function.	`["reference", "foo", "bar"]` Returns `"~rsesam:foo/bar"` (which is a value of the URI datatype)). `["reference", "foo", ["list", "a", "b"]]` Returns `["~rsesam:foo/a", "~rsesam:foo/b"]`.
`lookup`	Arguments: DATASET_IDS(value-expression{0\|1}) ENTITY_REFERENCES(value-expression{1}) Returns an entity or a list of entities by resolving the strings or URIs in ENTITY_REFERENCES. The URIs will be resolved by looking up entities by id in the given datasets. Relative references will be resolved in the current dataset or in the DATASET_IDS datasets if specified. The returned entities have an extra `_dataset` property containing the id of the dataset where they came from.	`["lookup", "~rsesam:A/foo"]` Looks up the `foo` entity in the `A` dataset. `["lookup", "A", ["list", "foo", "sesam:B/bar"]]` Looks up the `foo` entity in the `A` dataset and the `bar` entity in the `B` dataset. `["lookup", "bar"]` Looks up the `bar` entity in the current dataset. `["lookup",` `["list", "A", "B"],` `["list", "bar", "baz",` `"~rsesam:C/foo", "~rsesam:D/quux"]` Looks up the `bar` and `baz` entities in the `A` and `B` datasets. `foo` is looked up in the `C` dataset and `quux` in the `D` dataset because they are explicit entity references.

Namespaced identifiers ¶

Function	Description	Examples
`ni`	Arguments: NAMESPACE(string{0\|1}), VALUES(value-expression{1}) Translates input values to namespaced identifiers. Strings and URIs in VALUES will be cast to namespaced identifiers. Note that no escaping is done on the strings. If NAMESPACE is omitted, then the global namespace is used. URIs can be passed as values in VALUES only when NAMESPACE is not specified. The URIs will be collapsed, i.e. the prefix part of URIs will be collapsed into a namespace. If the prefix has been declared as a namespace then that namespace will be used, otherwise a generated namespace will be added.	Constructs a new namespaced identifier. `["ni", "foo", "bar"]` This will produce a namespaced identifier `"~:foo:bar"`. `["ni", "bar"]` This will produce a namespaced identifier in the global namespace; `"~:bar"`. `["ni", "foo", ["list", "bar", "x:y"]]` This will produce a list of two namespaced identifiers: `["~:foo:bar", "~:foo:x:y"]` `["ni", "foo", ["uri, "http://example.org/"]]` Returns `null` because URIs are not supported when NAMESPACE is specified. `["ni", ["uri, "http://example.org/bar"]]` Returns `"~:_:bar"`, i.e. a NI with the `_` namespace and `bar` as identifier. Note that the `http://example.org/` URI prefix is mapped to the `_` namespace by default. `["ni", ["uri, "http://unknown.org/something/baz"]]` If the `"http://unknown.org/something/"` URI prefix has not been declared as a namespace then it will return `"~:your-pipe-1:baz"` if the current pipe id is `your-pipe`. The `-1` part is a sequence counter, so if you introduce other namespaces in your pipe they'll be assigned unique namespace ids. If the URI prefix had already been mapped to the `unknown` namespace then the expression would have returned `"~:unknown:baz"`
`is-ni`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{1}) Boolean function that returns true if value is a namespaced identifier literal, or if it is a list, that the first element in the list is a namespaced identifier.	`["is-ni", ["ni", "foo:bar"]]` Returns `true`. `["is-ni", "foo:bar"]` Returns `false`. `["is-ni", ["list", ["ni", "foo:bar"], 12345]]` Returns `true`. `["is-ni", ["list", 1, ["ni", "foo:bar"]]]` Returns `false`.
`ni-ns`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{1})	Extracts the namespace part of namespaced identifiers. VALUES that are not namespaced identifiers are ignored. `["ni-ns", "~:foo:bar"]` Returns `"foo"`. `["ni-ns", ["list", "~:foo:bar", "~:bar:baz"]]` Returns `["foo", "bar"]`
`ni-id`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{1})	Extracts the namespace id part of namespaced identifiers. VALUES that are not namespaced identifiers are ignored. `["ni-id", "~:foo:bar"]` Returns `"bar"`. `["ni-id", ["list", "~:foo:bar", "~:bar:baz"]]` Returns `["bar", "baz"]`

Values / collections ¶

Function	Description	Examples
`list`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{>0}) Constructs a list of the values in VALUES.	`["list"]` Returns `[]`. `["list", "a", "b", "c"]` Returns `["a", "b", "c"]`. `["list", "a", ["list", "b"], "c"]` Returns `["a", ["b"], "c"]`.
`is-list`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{1}) Boolean function that returns true if value is a list	`["is-list", ["list", "foo:bar"]]` Returns true. `["is-list", "foo:bar"]` Returns false. `["is-list", ["list", ["uri", "foo:bar"], 12345]]` Returns true `["is-list", ["dict", "1", 2]]` Returns false. `["is-list", ["items", ["dict", "1", 2]]]` Returns true.
`first`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{1}) Returns the first value in VALUES. If VALUES is not a sequence of values, then VALUES is returned. If VALUES is empty, then null is returned.	`["first", ["list", "a", "b", "c"]]` Returns `"a"`. `["first", "_S.tags"]` Returns the first tag in the source entity's `tags` field.
`last`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{1}) Returns the last value in VALUES. If VALUES is not a sequence of values, then VALUES is returned. If VALUES is empty, then null is returned.	`["last", ["list", "a", "b", "c"]]` Returns `"c"`. `["last", "_S.tags"]` Returns the last tag in the source entity's `tags` field.
`in`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{1}) ITEMS(value-expression{1}) Boolean function that returns `true` if all values in VALUES exist in ITEMS, i.e. if VALUES is a subset of ITEMS. Returns false if VALUES is null or empty.	`["in", "a", ["list", "a", "b", "c"]]` Returns `true`. `["in", "d", ["list", "a", "b", "c"]]` Returns `false`. `["in", ["list", 10], 10]` Returns `true`. `["in", ["list"], 10]` Returns `false`. `["in", null, ["list", null]]` Returns `false`. `["in", ["list", null], ["list", 1, null, 2]]` Returns `true`. `["in", ["list", "a", "c"],` `["list", "a", "b", "c"]]` Returns `true`. `["in", ["list", "a", "c", "d"],` `["list", "a", "b", "c"]]` Returns `false`.
`nth`	Arguments: INDEX(integer-expression{1}) VALUES(value-expression{1}) Returns the nth value in VALUES. If VALUES is not a sequence of values, then VALUES is returned only if INDEX is 0. If VALUES is empty or the INDEX is out of bounds, then null is returned. Note that INDEX is zero-based.	`["nth", 1, ["list", "a", "b", "c"]]` Returns `"b"`. `["nth", 5, ["list", "a", "b", "c"]]` Returns `null`. `["nth", 1, "_S.tags"]` Returns the second tag in the source entity's `tags` field.
`slice`	Arguments: START(integer-expression{1}) END(integer-expression{0\|1}} STRIDE(integer-expression{0\|1}} VALUES(value-expression{1}) Returns a slice of VALUES from START to END with STRIDE. If END is not specified, the slice will continue to the end of VALUES. If no STRIDE is specified every element is returned (same as STRIDE=1).	`["slice", 2, -2, 2, ["list", 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]]` Returns `[2, 4]` `["slice", 2, ["list", 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]]` Returns `[2, 3, 4, 5, 6]`
`insert`	Arguments: INDEX(integer-expression{1}) VALUES(value-expression{1}) OBJECT(value-expression{1}) Inserts OBJECT at INDEX in VALUES. A negative INDEX means starting from the end.	`["insert", 1, 2, 3]` Returns `[2, 3]` `["insert", 1, ["list", 1, 2], ["list", 3, 4]]` Returns `[1, [3, 4], 2]` `["insert", -2, ["list", 1, 2, 3], 4]` Returns `[1, 4, 2, 3]`
`combine`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{>=1}) Combines the VALUES into a single list.	`["combine", null]` Returns `[]` `["combine", 1]` Returns `[1]` `["combine", 1, 4]` Returns `[1, 4]` `["combine", 1, ["list", 2, 3]]` Returns `[1, 2, 3]` `["combine", 1, ["list", 2, 3, ["list", 4]]]` Returns `[1, 2, 3, [4]]` `["combine", ["list", 1, 2], ["list", 3, 4], 5]` Returns `[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]`
`flatten`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{1}) Flattens its input values in VALUES. Note that it does not do so recursively. Constructs a new list.	`["flatten", ["list", 1, 2, ["list", 3, 4]]]` Returns `[1, 2, 3, 4]`. `["flatten",` `["list", ["list", 1, 2],` `["list", 3, ["list", 4], 5]]]` Returns `[1, 2, 3, [4], 5]`. `["flatten", ["list", "_S.sisters", "_S.brothers"]]` Returns a list that contains the sisters and brothers.
`filter`	Arguments: FUNCTION(function-expression(1} VALUES(value-expression{1}) Filters out the the values in VALUES for which the FUNCTION expression does not evaluate to true.	`["filter", ["gt", "_.age", 42],` `["list", {"age": 30}, {"age": 50}, {"age": 40}]]` Returns `[{"age": 50}]`. `["filter", ["gt", "_.amount", 100], "_S.orders"]]` Returns the order entities that have an amount of more than 100.
`min`	Arguments: FUNCTION(function-expression(0\|1} VALUES(value-expression{1}) Returns the minimum value in VALUES. If FUNCTION is given, the function is evaluated for each value in VALUES to, and the return value is used to for ordering to figure out what is the minimal value. Note that even though FUNCTION is given it is the value in VALUES that is returned. Note Values of different types are ordered using mixed type ordering.	`["min", ["list", 4, 2, 5, 3]]` Returns `2`. `["min", ["list", "b", 2, "a", 3]]` Returns `2`. `["min", ["list", {"x": 1}, "b", "a"]]` Returns `"a"`. `["min", "_.amount", "_S.orders"]]` Returns the order with the lowest amount.
`max`	Arguments: FUNCTION(function-expression(0\|1} VALUES(value-expression{1}) Returns the maximum value in VALUES. If FUNCTION is given, the function is evaluated for each value in VALUES to, and the return value is used to for ordering to figure out what is the maximal value. Note that even though FUNCTION is given it is the value in VALUES that is returned. Note Values of different types are ordered using mixed type ordering.	`["max", ["list", 4, 2, 5, 3]]` Returns `5`. `["max", ["list", "b", 2, "a", 3]]` Returns `"b"`. `["max", ["list", {"x": 1}, "b", 2, "a"]]` Returns `{"x": 1}`. `["max", "_.amount", "_S.orders"]]` Returns the order with the highest amount.
`sum`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{1}) Returns the sum of the numeric values in VALUES. Any non-numeric values are ignored.	`["sum", ["list", 2, 4, 6]]` Returns `12`. `["sum", "_S.amounts"]]` Returns the sum of the amounts.
`count`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{1}) Returns the number of elements in VALUES.	`["count", ["list", 2, 4, 6]]` Returns `3`. `["count", null]]` Returns `0`. `["count", 123]]` Returns `1`. `["count", "_S.orders"]]` Returns the the number of orders.
`range`	Arguments: START(integer-expression{1}) STOP(integer-expression{1}) STEP(integer-expression{0\|1}) Returns a list of integers ranging from START (inclusive) to STOP (exclusive) in STEP increments. Note that STEP cannot be 0 and all arguments must be integers or integer expressions.	`["range", 0, 4]` Returns `[0, 1, 2, 3]`. `["range", 4, 0, -1]]` Returns `[4, 3, 2, 1]`.
`enumerate`	Arguments: START(integer-expression{0\|1}) VALUES(value-expression{1}) Enumerates the values by returning dictionaries with `key` and `value` keys. `value` contains the value and `key` the enumerator count. The enumeration counter starts at START and uses an increment of 1. The default value of START is 0.	`["enumerate", "a"]` Returns `{"key": 0, "value": "a"}`. `["enumerate", 1, "a"]` Returns `{"key": 1, "value": "a"}`. `["enumerate", ["list", 17, 32, 21]]` Returns `[{"key": 0, "value": 17},` `{"key": 1, "value": 32},` `{"key": 2, "value": 21}]`. `["enumerate", 2, ["list", 17, 32, 21]]` Returns `[{"key": 2, "value": 17},` `{"key": 3, "value": 32},` `{"key": 4, "value": 21}]`.
`distinct`	Arguments: FUNCTION(function-expression(0\|1} VALUES(value-expression{1}) Returns a list of distinct values in VALUES, i.e. it returns a list where duplicates have been removed from VALUES. If FUNCTION is given, then function is evaluated for each value in VALUES, and the return value is used to check for duplicates. Note that even though FUNCTION is given it is the value in VALUES that is returned.	`["distinct", ["list", 4, 2, 5, 4, 3]]` Returns `[4, 2, 5, 3]`. `["distinct", "_S.tags"]]` Returns a deduplicated list of tags. `["distinct", "_.ean", "_S.orders.line_item"]]` Returns a list of order lines, but only one per unique EAN, i.e. product number.
`sorted`	Arguments: FUNCTION(function-expression(0\|1} VALUES(value-expression{1}) Returns VALUES sorted in ascending order. If FUNCTION is given, then function is evaluated for each value in VALUES, and the return value is used as the sort key. Note that even though FUNCTION is given it is the value in VALUES that is returned. Note that this function does not remove duplicates. Use `distinct` to do that. If VALUES is not a list, then VALUES is returned. Note Values of different types are ordered using mixed type ordering.	`["sorted", ["list", 4, 2, 5, 4, 3]]` Returns `[2, 3, 4, 4, 5]`. `["sorted", ["list", "b", 2, {"x": 1}, "a", 4]]` Returns `[2, 4, "a", "b", {"x": 1}]`. Note that the values are sorted using mixed type ordering. `["sorted",` `["list", {"x": 1}, {"x": "abc"}, {"x": 2}]]` Returns `[{"x": 1}, {"x": 2}, {"x": "abc"}]` `["sorted", "_.age",` `["list",` `{"age": 30}, {"age": 50}, {"age": 20}]]` Returns `[{"age": 20}, {"age": 30}, {"age": 50}]`. `["sorted", "_S.tags"]]` Returns the tags in ascending order.
`sorted-descending`	Arguments: FUNCTION(function-expression(0\|1} VALUES(value-expression{1}) Returns VALUES sorted in descending order. If FUNCTION is given, then function is evaluated for each value in VALUES, and the return value is used as the sort key. Note that even though FUNCTION is given it is the value in VALUES that is returned. Note that this function does not remove duplicates. Use `distinct` to do that. If VALUES is not a list, then VALUES is returned. Note Values of different types are ordered using mixed type ordering.	`["sorted-descending", ["list", 4, 2, 5, 4, 3]]` Returns `[5, 4, 4, 3, 2]`. `["sorted-descending", ["list", "b", 2, {"x": 1}, "a", 4]]` Returns `[{"x": 1}, "b", "a", 4, 2]`. Note that the values are sorted using mixed type ordering. `["sorted-descending",` `["list", {"x": 1}, {"x": "abc"}, {"x": 2}]]` Returns `[{"x": "abc"}, {"x": 2}, {"x": 1}]` `["sorted-descending", "_.age",` `["list",` `{"age": 30}, {"age": 50}, {"age": 20}]]` Returns `[{"age": 50}, {"age": 30}, {"age": 20}]`. `["sorted-descending", "_S.tags"]]` Returns the tags in descending order.
`reversed`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{1}) Returns VALUES in reversed order.	`["reversed", ["list", 1, 3, 2]]` Returns `[2, 3, 1]`. `["reversed", ["sorted", "_S.tags"]]` Returns list of tags sorted in descending order.
`map`	Arguments: FUNCTION(function-expression(1} VALUES(value-expression{1}) For each value in VALUES apply the FUNCTION function and construct a new list of the return values.	`["map", ["lower", "_."], ["list", "A", "B", "C"]]` Returns `["a", "b", "c"]`. `["map", ["distinct", "_."],` `["list", ["list", "A", "A"],` `["list", "B", "C"]]]` Returns `[["A"], ["B", "C"]]`.
`map-values`	Arguments: VALUE_FUNCTION(function-expression(1} VALUES(value-expression{1}) For each dictionary in VALUES apply the VALUE_FUNCTION to the dictionary's values. The function maps over the values of dictionaries and returns a list of mapped values. Non-dictionary values are ignored.	`["map-values",` `["lower", "_."],` `{"key1": "A", "key2": "B"}]` Returns `["a", "b"]`. `["map-values",` `["lower", "_."],` `["list", {"key1": "A", "key2": "B"}, 100,` `{"key1": "B", "key2": "A", "key3": "C"}]]` Returns `["a", "b", "b", "a", "c"]`.
`map-dict`	Arguments: KEY_FUNCTION(function-expression(1} VALUE_FUNCTION(function-expression(1} VALUES(value-expression{1}) For each dictionary in VALUES construct a new dictionary by applying the KEY_FUNCTION function and the VALUE_FUNCTION to all its key+value pairs. If the KEY_FUNCTION returns a non-string value then the key+value pair is ignored. Empty dictionaries are not returned.	`["map-dict",` `["upper", "_."], ["plus", 1, "_."],` `{"A": 1, "B": 2}]` Returns `{"A": 2, "B": 3}`. `["map-dict",` `["if", ["gt", ["length", "_."], 2],` `["concat", "x:", "_."]], "_.",` `["list",` `{"abc": 1, "ab": 2, "abcd": 3},` `{"def": 4}, {"gh": 5}]]` Returns `[{"x:abc": 1, "x:abcd": 3}, {"x:def": 4}]`.
`group-by`	Arguments: KEY_FUNCTION(function-expression(0\|1} STRING_FUNCTION(function-expression(0\|1} VALUES(value-expression{1}) Groups the values in VALUES by the result of executing the KEY_FUNCTION function on them. Returns a dictionary, where the key is the group key and the value is the list of values in VALUES that were grouped under that key. Note The keys in the returned dict are strings only. The reason is that the entity data model (and JSON) only supports string keys. The group keys are transit encoded JSON strings, i.e. the same kind of strings generated by the json-transit function. If you do not want the keys to be transit encoded JSON, then you have the option of specifying STRING_FUNCTION, a function that then will be used to generate the string key.	`["group-by", ["length", "_."],` `["list", "phi", "alpha", "rho"]]` Returns `{"3": ["phi", "rho"], "5": ["alpha"]}`. `["group-by", "_.ean", "_S.orders.line_item"]]` Returns order lines grouped by EAN, i.e. product number. `["group-by", "_.gender", "_S.people"]]` Returns a dictionary of people grouped by their gender. `["group-by",` `["upper", "_."], ["list", "a", "b"]]` Returns `{"\"A\"": ["a"], "\"B\"": ["b"]}`. The keys are transit-encoded JSON strings. `["group-by",` `["upper", "_."],` `["string", "_."], ["list", "a", "b"]]` Returns `{"A": ["a"], "B": ["b"]}`. Same as above, but we specify a STRING_FUNCTION function that creates string keys.

Sets ¶

Function	Description	Examples
`union`	Arguments: VALUES1(value-expression{1}) VALUES2(value-expression{1}) Returns the union of the two sets VALUES1 and VALUES2, i.e. the elements that are either in VALUES1 or in VALUES2. The two arguments do not have to be real sets, but will be coerced into sets before applying the union operator. The return type is a list of distinct values.	`["union",` `["list", "A", "B"], ["list", "B", "C"]]` Returns `["A", "B", "C"]`. `["union", "A", ["list", "B", "C"]]` Returns `["A", "B", "C"]`.
`intersection`	Arguments: VALUES1(value-expression{1}) VALUES2(value-expression{1}) Returns the intersection of the two sets VALUES1 and VALUES2, i.e. the elements that are in both VALUES1 and VALUES2. The two arguments do not have to be real sets, but will be coerced into sets before applying the intersection operator. The return type is a list of distinct values.	`["intersection",` `["list", "A", "B"], ["list", "B", "C"]]` Returns `["B"]`. `["intersection", "B", ["list", "B", "C"]]` Returns `["B"]`. `["intersection", "A", ["list", "B", "C"]]` Returns `[]`.
`intersects`	Arguments: VALUES1(value-expression{1}) VALUES2(value-expression{1}) Same as `intersection`, but returns a boolean value. Returns true if the two arguments have elements in common.	`["intersects",` `["list", "A", "B"], ["list", "B", "C"]]` Returns `true`. `["intersects", "B", ["list", "B", "C"]]` Returns `true`. `["intersects", "A", ["list", "B", "C"]]` Returns `false`.
`difference`	Arguments: VALUES1(value-expression{1}) VALUES2(value-expression{1}) Returns the difference of the two sets VALUES1 and VALUES2, i.e. the elements that are in VALUES1, but not in VALUES2. The two arguments do not have to be real sets, but will be coerced into sets before applying the difference operator. The return type is a list of distinct values.	`["difference",` `["list", "A", "B"], ["list", "B"]]` Returns `["A"]`. `["difference", "A", ["list", "B", "C"]]` Returns `["A"]`. `["difference",` `["list", "A", "B", "C", "D"],` `["list", "A", "B", "E"]]` Returns `["C", "D"]`.

Dictionaries / Entities ¶

Function	Description	Examples
`items`	Arguments: DICTS(value-expression{1}) Takes a list of dictionaries in and outputs a list of key+value tuples. For each key+value pair in the dictionaries one pair is added to the output list. Non-dictionary values are ignored. Note that entities are dictionaries, so you can use this function with them.	`["items",` `["list", {"A": 1, "B": 2}, {"C": 3}]]` Returns `[["A", 1], ["B", 2], ["C", 3]]`. `["items", ["list", "X", 123, {"A": 1}]]` Returns `[["A", 1]]`.
`dict`	Arguments: EMPTY{0} or ITEMS(value-expression{1}) or (KEY, VALUE){>=0) If EMPTY, i.e. no arguments given, then an empty dict (`{}`) is returned. If ITEMS specified, then it takes a list of key+value pair tuples and returns a dictionary with those tuples as keys and values. Note that last key wins. Values are not two-element tuples are ignored. If KEY+VALUE pairs are given, then a new dict with those pairs as keys and values. Note that last key wins.	`["dict"]` Returns `{}`. `["dict",` `["list",` `["list", "A", 1],` `["list", "B", 2],` `["list", "C", 3]]]` Returns `{"A": 1, "B": 2, "C": 3}`. `["dict", ["list", "X", 123, ["list", "A", 1]]` Returns `{"A": 1}`. `["dict",` `"a", ["upper", "a"],` `["lower", "B"], "B"]` Returns `{"a": "A", "b": "B"}`.
`is-dict`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{1}) Boolean function that returns true if value is a dictionary or if it is a list, that the first element in the list is a dictionary	`["is-dict", "_S."]` Returns true. `["is-dict", ["list", {"a": 1}, 123]` Returns true. `["is-dict", ["list", 123, {"a": 1}]` Returns false. `["is-dict", "abc"]` Returns false
`keys`	Arguments: DICTS(value-expression{1}) Takes a list of dictionaries in and outputs a list of keys. For each key+value pair in the dictionaries one key is added to the output list. Non-dict values are ignored.	`["keys",` `["list", {"A": 1, "B": 2}, {"A": 1, "C": 3}]]` Returns `["A", "B", "A", "C"]`. `["keys", ["list", "X", 123, {"A": 1}]]` Returns `["A"]`.
`values`	Arguments: DICTS(value-expression{1}) Takes a list of dictionaries in and outputs a list of values. For each key+value pair in the dictionaries one value is added to the output list. Non-dict values are ignored.	`["values",` `["list", {"A": 1, "B": 2}, {"A": 1, "C": 3}]]` Returns `[1, 2, 1, 3]`. `["values", ["list", "X", 123, {"A": 1}]]` Returns `[1]`.
`key-values`	Arguments: DICTS(value-expression{1}) Takes a list of dictionaries in and outputs a list of dictionaries with "key" and "value" keys. For each key+value pair in the dictionaries one dict is added to the output list. Non-dictionary values are ignored. Note that entities are dictionaries, so you can use this function with them.	`["key-values",` `["list", {"A": 1, "B": 2}, 123, {"C": 3, "A": 1}]]` Returns `[{"key": "A", "value": 1},` `{"key": "B", "value": 2},` `{"key": "C", "value": 3},` `{"key": "A", "value": 1}]`. `["key-values", {"hello": "world"}]` Returns `{"key": "hello", "value": "world"}`.

Tuples ¶

Function	Description	Examples
`tuples`	Arguments: VALUES(value-expression{>0}) Constructs a list of tuples, the product of the values given in the arguments. The tuple length is equal to the number of function arguments. `null` values are ignored. This function is a good choice when you need to do joins on composite keys.	`["tuples"]` Returns `[]`. `["tuples", "a", "b", "c"]` Returns `[["a", "b", "c"]]`. `["tuples", ["list", 1, 2], 3]` Returns `[[1, 3], [2, 3]]`. `["tuples",` `["list", 1, 2], ["list", 3, null, 4, 5]]` Returns `[[1, 3], [1, 4], [1, 5],` `[2, 3], [2, 4], [2, 5]]`. The `null` value was ignored.

Math ¶

The plus, minus, multiply, divide, mod and pow functions are map-style functions that apply the first argument to one or more values. For "natural order" math operators that operate on single numbers, use the symbolic equivalents +, -, *, /, % and ^. If the argument(s) to the natural order functions are lists, the first value is used. If either argument evaluates to null, the result will also be null.

Function	Description	Examples
`plus`	Arguments: INCREMENT(numeric-expression{1}) VALUES(value-expression{1}) Takes a list of `VALUES` and increments them by `INCREMENT`. Non-numeric values are ignored.	`["plus", 10, ["list", 1, 2, 3]]` Returns `[11, 12, 13]`. `["plus", 10, 10]` Returns `20`.
`+`	Arguments: VALUE1(value-expression{1}) VALUE2(value-expression{1}) Returns the result of `VALUE1 + VALUE2`. The result is always a single number (or `null`).	`["+", 10, 3]` Returns `10`. `["+", 10, ["list", 10, 20, 30]]` Returns `20`.
`minus`	Arguments: DECREMENT(numeric-expression{1}) VALUES(value-expression{1}) Takes a list of `VALUES` and decrements them by `DECREMENT`. Non-numeric values are ignored.	`["minus", 1, ["list", 1, 2, 3]]` Returns `[0, 1, 2]`. `["minus", 10, 12]` Returns `2`.
`-`	Arguments: VALUE1(value-expression{1}) VALUE2(value-expression{1}) Returns the result of `VALUE1 - VALUE2`. The result is always a single number (or `null`).	`["-", 1, ["list", 1, 2, 3]]` Returns `0`. `["-", 10, 12]` Returns `-2`.
`divide`	Arguments: DIVISOR(numeric-expression{1}) DIVIDENDS(value-expression{1}) Takes a list of `DIVIDENDS` and divides them by `DIVISOR`. Non-numeric values are ignored.	`["divide", 2, ["list", 2, 4, 6]]` Returns `[1, 2, 3]`. `["divide", 10, 20]` Returns `2`. `["divide", ["list", 2, 8], 3]` Returns `1.5`.
`/`	Arguments: DIVIDEND(numeric-expression{1}) DIVISOR(value-expression{1}) Returns the result of `DIVIDEND / DIVISOR`. The result is always a single number (or `null`).	`["/", 2, ["list", 4, 6, 8]]` Returns `0.5`. `["/", 10, 20]` Returns `0.5`. `["/", ["list", -3, 10, 100], 2]` Returns `-1.5`. `["/", ["list", 3, 8], ["list", -2, 6]]` Returns `-1.5`. `["/", 5, 0]` Returns `null`.
`multiply`	Arguments: MULTIPLIER(numeric-expression{1}) VALUES(value-expression{1}) Takes a list of `VALUES` and multiplies them by `MULTIPLIER`. Non-numeric values are ignored.	`["multiply", 2, ["list", 2, 4, 6]]` Returns `[4, 8, 12]`. `["multiply", 10, 20]` Returns `200`. `["multiply", 2.3, 2]` Returns `4.6`.
`*`	Arguments: VALUE(value-expression{1}) MULTIPLIER(value-expression{1}) Returns the result of the expression `VALUE * MULTIPLIER`	`["", 2, ["list", 2, 4, 6]]` Returns `4`. `["", 10, 20]` Returns `200`. `["*", ["list", 2.3, 14], 2]` Returns `4.6`.
`mod`	Arguments: DIVISOR(numeric-expression{1}) VALUES(value-expression{1}) Takes a list of `VALUES` and finds the remainder of dividing them by `DIVISOR`. Non-numeric values are ignored.	`["mod", 2, ["list", 2, 5, 6]]` Returns `[0, 1, 0]`. `["mod", 3, 5]` Returns `2`.
`%`	Arguments: DIVIDEND(numeric-expression{1}) DIVISOR(value-expression{1}) Takes a `DIVIDEND` value finds the remainder of dividing them by `DIVISOR`: `DIVIDEND % DIVISOR`. Non-numeric values are ignored.	`["%", 2, ["list", 2, 5, 6]]` Returns `0`. `["%", 5, 3]` Returns `2`. `["%", ["list", 5, 8, 9], 3]` Returns `2`. `["%", ["list", 5, 8, 9], ["list", 3, -2.3]]` Returns `2`.
`pow`	Arguments: EXPONENT(numeric-expression{1}) VALUES(value-expression{1}) Takes a list of `VALUES` and raises them to the power of `EXPONENT`. Non-numeric values are ignored.	`["pow", 2, ["list", 2, 5, 6]]` Returns `[4, 25, 36]`. `["pow", 3, 10]` Returns `1000`.
`^`	Arguments: VALUE(value-expression{1}) EXPONENT(value-expression{1}) Takes a `VALUE` and raises it to the power of `EXPONENT`: `VALUE^EXPONENT`. The result is always a single value (or `null`). Non-numeric values are ignored.	`["^", 2, ["list", 2, 5, 6]]` Returns `4`. `["^", 5, 2]` Returns `25`. `["^", ["list", 2, 8, 9], 3]` Returns `8`. `["^", ["list", 2, 8, 9], ["list", 3, -2.3]]` Returns `8`.
`round`	Arguments: DIGITS(numeric-expression{0\|1}) VALUES(value-expression{1}) Takes a list of VALUES and optionally rounds them to the number of DIGITS and then returns the nearest integer digit (adjusted for the number of digits specified, default is 0). Non-numeric values are ignored. In contrast to `ceil` or `floor` it uses the "half to even" rule to decide if to round up or down (see this wikipedia article for details).	`["round", ["list", 2.2, 3.5, 4.5]]` Returns `[2, 4, 4]`. `["round", 1, ["list", 2.2, 4.778, 6]]` Returns `[2.2, 4.8, 6]`. `["round", 2, 2.299]` Returns `2.30`. `["round", 2.299]` Returns `3`. Note that the even/odd rule also applies to negative numbers: `["round", -4.5]` Returns `-4`. `["round", -3.5]` Returns `-4`. If `DIGITS` is 0 or not provided, the return value will be of type integer. In all other cases it will be a decimal or a float.
`ceil`	Arguments: DIGITS(numeric-expression{0\|1}) VALUES(value-expression{1}) Takes a list of VALUES and optionally rounds them to the number of DIGITS and then returns the nearest integer that is larger than the value (adjusted for the number of digits specified, default is 0). Non-numeric values are ignored.	`["ceil", ["list", 2.2, 4.778, 6]]` Returns `[3, 5, 6]`. `["ceil", 1, ["list", 2.2, 4.778, 6]]` Returns `[2.2, 4.8, 6]`. `["ceil", 2, 2.299]` Returns `2.30`. `["ceil", 2.299]` Returns `3`. Note that if `DIGITS` is 0 or not provided, the return value will be of type integer. In all other cases it will be a decimal or a float.
`floor`	Arguments: DIGITS(numeric-expression{0\|1}) VALUES(value-expression{1}) Takes a list of VALUES and optionally rounds them to the number of DIGITS and then returns the nearest integer that is lower than the value (adjusted for the number of digits specified, default is 0). Non-numeric values are ignored.	`["floor", ["list", 2.2, 4.778, 6]]` Returns `[2, 4, 6]`. `["floor", 1, ["list", 2.2, 4.778, 6]]` Returns `[2.2, 4.7, 6]`. `["floor", 2, 2.299]` Returns `2.29`. `["floor", 2.299]` Returns `2`. Note that if `DIGITS` is 0 or not provided, the return value will be of type integer. In all other cases it will be a decimal or a float.
`abs`	Arguments: VALUE(numeric-expression{1}) Takes a list of VALUES and returns the absolute value. If the VALUE is an integer, an integer will be returned. If not, a decimal or a float.	`["abs", ["list", -2, 4, -6]]` Returns `[2, 4, 6]`. `["abs", 2]` Returns `2`. `["abs", -2.23]` Returns `2.23`.
`sqrt`	Arguments: VALUE(numeric-expression{1}) Takes a list of VALUES and returns the square root of the value. If the result is not a real number, `None` is returned instead.	`["sqrt", ["list", 4, 9, 16]]` Returns `[2.0, 3.0, 4.0]`. `["sqrt", -2]` Returns `None`. `["sqrt", 9.0]` Returns `3.0`.
`sin`	Arguments: VALUE(numeric-expression{1}) Takes a list of VALUES and returns the sinus of the value, where value is in radians.	`["sin", ["list", 0, 3.14159265]]` Returns `[0.0, ~0.0]`. `["sin", 0.0]` Returns `0.0`.
`cos`	Arguments: VALUE(numeric-expression{1}) Takes a list of VALUES and returns the cosinus of the value, where value is in radians.	`["cos", ["list", 0, 3.14159265]]` Returns `[1.0, ~-1.0]`. `["cos", 0.0]` Returns `1.0`.
`tan`	Arguments: VALUE(numeric-expression{1}) Takes a list of VALUES and returns the tangens of the value, where value is in radians. Note that values approaching very close to multiples of PI/2 will be undefined (+-infinite) and the result will be a `None` value.	`["tan", ["list", 0, 3.14159265]]` Returns `[0.0, ~0.0]`.

Supported timezones ¶

The datetime-shift dtl-function supports the following timezones:

'Africa/Abidjan', 'Africa/Accra', 'Africa/Addis_Ababa', 'Africa/Algiers', 'Africa/Asmara', 'Africa/Asmera', 'Africa/Bamako', 'Africa/Bangui', 'Africa/Banjul', 'Africa/Bissau', 'Africa/Blantyre', 'Africa/Brazzaville', 'Africa/Bujumbura', 'Africa/Cairo', 'Africa/Casablanca', 'Africa/Ceuta', 'Africa/Conakry', 'Africa/Dakar', 'Africa/Dar_es_Salaam', 'Africa/Djibouti', 'Africa/Douala', 'Africa/El_Aaiun', 'Africa/Freetown', 'Africa/Gaborone', 'Africa/Harare', 'Africa/Johannesburg', 'Africa/Juba', 'Africa/Kampala', 'Africa/Khartoum', 'Africa/Kigali', 'Africa/Kinshasa', 'Africa/Lagos', 'Africa/Libreville', 'Africa/Lome', 'Africa/Luanda', 'Africa/Lubumbashi', 'Africa/Lusaka', 'Africa/Malabo', 'Africa/Maputo', 'Africa/Maseru', 'Africa/Mbabane', 'Africa/Mogadishu', 'Africa/Monrovia', 'Africa/Nairobi', 'Africa/Ndjamena', 'Africa/Niamey', 'Africa/Nouakchott', 'Africa/Ouagadougou', 'Africa/Porto-Novo', 'Africa/Sao_Tome', 'Africa/Timbuktu', 'Africa/Tripoli', 'Africa/Tunis', 'Africa/Windhoek', 'America/Adak', 'America/Anchorage', 'America/Anguilla', 'America/Antigua', 'America/Araguaina', 'America/Argentina/Buenos_Aires', 'America/Argentina/Catamarca', 'America/Argentina/ComodRivadavia', 'America/Argentina/Cordoba', 'America/Argentina/Jujuy', 'America/Argentina/La_Rioja', 'America/Argentina/Mendoza', 'America/Argentina/Rio_Gallegos', 'America/Argentina/Salta', 'America/Argentina/San_Juan', 'America/Argentina/San_Luis', 'America/Argentina/Tucuman', 'America/Argentina/Ushuaia', 'America/Aruba', 'America/Asuncion', 'America/Atikokan', 'America/Atka', 'America/Bahia', 'America/Bahia_Banderas', 'America/Barbados', 'America/Belem', 'America/Belize', 'America/Blanc-Sablon', 'America/Boa_Vista', 'America/Bogota', 'America/Boise', 'America/Buenos_Aires', 'America/Cambridge_Bay', 'America/Campo_Grande', 'America/Cancun', 'America/Caracas', 'America/Catamarca', 'America/Cayenne', 'America/Cayman', 'America/Chicago', 'America/Chihuahua', 'America/Coral_Harbour', 'America/Cordoba', 'America/Costa_Rica', 'America/Creston', 'America/Cuiaba', 'America/Curacao', 'America/Danmarkshavn', 'America/Dawson', 'America/Dawson_Creek', 'America/Denver', 'America/Detroit', 'America/Dominica', 'America/Edmonton', 'America/Eirunepe', 'America/El_Salvador', 'America/Ensenada', 'America/Fort_Nelson', 'America/Fort_Wayne', 'America/Fortaleza', 'America/Glace_Bay', 'America/Godthab', 'America/Goose_Bay', 'America/Grand_Turk', 'America/Grenada', 'America/Guadeloupe', 'America/Guatemala', 'America/Guayaquil', 'America/Guyana', 'America/Halifax', 'America/Havana', 'America/Hermosillo', 'America/Indiana/Indianapolis', 'America/Indiana/Knox', 'America/Indiana/Marengo', 'America/Indiana/Petersburg', 'America/Indiana/Tell_City', 'America/Indiana/Vevay', 'America/Indiana/Vincennes', 'America/Indiana/Winamac', 'America/Indianapolis', 'America/Inuvik', 'America/Iqaluit', 'America/Jamaica', 'America/Jujuy', 'America/Juneau', 'America/Kentucky/Louisville', 'America/Kentucky/Monticello', 'America/Knox_IN', 'America/Kralendijk', 'America/La_Paz', 'America/Lima', 'America/Los_Angeles', 'America/Louisville', 'America/Lower_Princes', 'America/Maceio', 'America/Managua', 'America/Manaus', 'America/Marigot', 'America/Martinique', 'America/Matamoros', 'America/Mazatlan', 'America/Mendoza', 'America/Menominee', 'America/Merida', 'America/Metlakatla', 'America/Mexico_City', 'America/Miquelon', 'America/Moncton', 'America/Monterrey', 'America/Montevideo', 'America/Montreal', 'America/Montserrat', 'America/Nassau', 'America/New_York', 'America/Nipigon', 'America/Nome', 'America/Noronha', 'America/North_Dakota/Beulah', 'America/North_Dakota/Center', 'America/North_Dakota/New_Salem', 'America/Ojinaga', 'America/Panama', 'America/Pangnirtung', 'America/Paramaribo', 'America/Phoenix', 'America/Port-au-Prince', 'America/Port_of_Spain', 'America/Porto_Acre', 'America/Porto_Velho', 'America/Puerto_Rico', 'America/Punta_Arenas', 'America/Rainy_River', 'America/Rankin_Inlet', 'America/Recife', 'America/Regina', 'America/Resolute', 'America/Rio_Branco', 'America/Rosario', 'America/Santa_Isabel', 'America/Santarem', 'America/Santiago', 'America/Santo_Domingo', 'America/Sao_Paulo', 'America/Scoresbysund', 'America/Shiprock', 'America/Sitka', 'America/St_Barthelemy', 'America/St_Johns', 'America/St_Kitts', 'America/St_Lucia', 'America/St_Thomas', 'America/St_Vincent', 'America/Swift_Current', 'America/Tegucigalpa', 'America/Thule', 'America/Thunder_Bay', 'America/Tijuana', 'America/Toronto', 'America/Tortola', 'America/Vancouver', 'America/Virgin', 'America/Whitehorse', 'America/Winnipeg', 'America/Yakutat', 'America/Yellowknife', 'Antarctica/Casey', 'Antarctica/Davis', 'Antarctica/DumontDUrville', 'Antarctica/Macquarie', 'Antarctica/Mawson', 'Antarctica/McMurdo', 'Antarctica/Palmer', 'Antarctica/Rothera', 'Antarctica/South_Pole', 'Antarctica/Syowa', 'Antarctica/Troll', 'Antarctica/Vostok', 'Arctic/Longyearbyen', 'Asia/Aden', 'Asia/Almaty', 'Asia/Amman', 'Asia/Anadyr', 'Asia/Aqtau', 'Asia/Aqtobe', 'Asia/Ashgabat', 'Asia/Ashkhabad', 'Asia/Atyrau', 'Asia/Baghdad', 'Asia/Bahrain', 'Asia/Baku', 'Asia/Bangkok', 'Asia/Barnaul', 'Asia/Beirut', 'Asia/Bishkek', 'Asia/Brunei', 'Asia/Calcutta', 'Asia/Chita', 'Asia/Choibalsan', 'Asia/Chongqing', 'Asia/Chungking', 'Asia/Colombo', 'Asia/Dacca', 'Asia/Damascus', 'Asia/Dhaka', 'Asia/Dili', 'Asia/Dubai', 'Asia/Dushanbe', 'Asia/Famagusta', 'Asia/Gaza', 'Asia/Harbin', 'Asia/Hebron', 'Asia/Ho_Chi_Minh', 'Asia/Hong_Kong', 'Asia/Hovd', 'Asia/Irkutsk', 'Asia/Istanbul', 'Asia/Jakarta', 'Asia/Jayapura', 'Asia/Jerusalem', 'Asia/Kabul', 'Asia/Kamchatka', 'Asia/Karachi', 'Asia/Kashgar', 'Asia/Kathmandu', 'Asia/Katmandu', 'Asia/Khandyga', 'Asia/Kolkata', 'Asia/Krasnoyarsk', 'Asia/Kuala_Lumpur', 'Asia/Kuching', 'Asia/Kuwait', 'Asia/Macao', 'Asia/Macau', 'Asia/Magadan', 'Asia/Makassar', 'Asia/Manila', 'Asia/Muscat', 'Asia/Nicosia', 'Asia/Novokuznetsk', 'Asia/Novosibirsk', 'Asia/Omsk', 'Asia/Oral', 'Asia/Phnom_Penh', 'Asia/Pontianak', 'Asia/Pyongyang', 'Asia/Qatar', 'Asia/Qyzylorda', 'Asia/Rangoon', 'Asia/Riyadh', 'Asia/Saigon', 'Asia/Sakhalin', 'Asia/Samarkand', 'Asia/Seoul', 'Asia/Shanghai', 'Asia/Singapore', 'Asia/Srednekolymsk', 'Asia/Taipei', 'Asia/Tashkent', 'Asia/Tbilisi', 'Asia/Tehran', 'Asia/Tel_Aviv', 'Asia/Thimbu', 'Asia/Thimphu', 'Asia/Tokyo', 'Asia/Tomsk', 'Asia/Ujung_Pandang', 'Asia/Ulaanbaatar', 'Asia/Ulan_Bator', 'Asia/Urumqi', 'Asia/Ust-Nera', 'Asia/Vientiane', 'Asia/Vladivostok', 'Asia/Yakutsk', 'Asia/Yangon', 'Asia/Yekaterinburg', 'Asia/Yerevan', 'Atlantic/Azores', 'Atlantic/Bermuda', 'Atlantic/Canary', 'Atlantic/Cape_Verde', 'Atlantic/Faeroe', 'Atlantic/Faroe', 'Atlantic/Jan_Mayen', 'Atlantic/Madeira', 'Atlantic/Reykjavik', 'Atlantic/South_Georgia', 'Atlantic/St_Helena', 'Atlantic/Stanley', 'Australia/ACT', 'Australia/Adelaide', 'Australia/Brisbane', 'Australia/Broken_Hill', 'Australia/Canberra', 'Australia/Currie', 'Australia/Darwin', 'Australia/Eucla', 'Australia/Hobart', 'Australia/LHI', 'Australia/Lindeman', 'Australia/Lord_Howe', 'Australia/Melbourne', 'Australia/NSW', 'Australia/North', 'Australia/Perth', 'Australia/Queensland', 'Australia/South', 'Australia/Sydney', 'Australia/Tasmania', 'Australia/Victoria', 'Australia/West', 'Australia/Yancowinna', 'Brazil/Acre', 'Brazil/DeNoronha', 'Brazil/East', 'Brazil/West', 'CET', 'CST6CDT', 'Canada/Atlantic', 'Canada/Central', 'Canada/Eastern', 'Canada/Mountain', 'Canada/Newfoundland', 'Canada/Pacific', 'Canada/Saskatchewan', 'Canada/Yukon', 'Chile/Continental', 'Chile/EasterIsland', 'Cuba', 'EET', 'EST', 'EST5EDT', 'Egypt', 'Eire', 'Etc/GMT', 'Etc/GMT+0', 'Etc/GMT+1', 'Etc/GMT+10', 'Etc/GMT+11', 'Etc/GMT+12', 'Etc/GMT+2', 'Etc/GMT+3', 'Etc/GMT+4', 'Etc/GMT+5', 'Etc/GMT+6', 'Etc/GMT+7', 'Etc/GMT+8', 'Etc/GMT+9', 'Etc/GMT-0', 'Etc/GMT-1', 'Etc/GMT-10', 'Etc/GMT-11', 'Etc/GMT-12', 'Etc/GMT-13', 'Etc/GMT-14', 'Etc/GMT-2', 'Etc/GMT-3', 'Etc/GMT-4', 'Etc/GMT-5', 'Etc/GMT-6', 'Etc/GMT-7', 'Etc/GMT-8', 'Etc/GMT-9', 'Etc/GMT0', 'Etc/Greenwich', 'Etc/UCT', 'Etc/UTC', 'Etc/Universal', 'Etc/Zulu', 'Europe/Amsterdam', 'Europe/Andorra', 'Europe/Astrakhan', 'Europe/Athens', 'Europe/Belfast', 'Europe/Belgrade', 'Europe/Berlin', 'Europe/Bratislava', 'Europe/Brussels', 'Europe/Bucharest', 'Europe/Budapest', 'Europe/Busingen', 'Europe/Chisinau', 'Europe/Copenhagen', 'Europe/Dublin', 'Europe/Gibraltar', 'Europe/Guernsey', 'Europe/Helsinki', 'Europe/Isle_of_Man', 'Europe/Istanbul', 'Europe/Jersey', 'Europe/Kaliningrad', 'Europe/Kiev', 'Europe/Kirov', 'Europe/Lisbon', 'Europe/Ljubljana', 'Europe/London', 'Europe/Luxembourg', 'Europe/Madrid', 'Europe/Malta', 'Europe/Mariehamn', 'Europe/Minsk', 'Europe/Monaco', 'Europe/Moscow', 'Europe/Nicosia', 'Europe/Oslo', 'Europe/Paris', 'Europe/Podgorica', 'Europe/Prague', 'Europe/Riga', 'Europe/Rome', 'Europe/Samara', 'Europe/San_Marino', 'Europe/Sarajevo', 'Europe/Saratov', 'Europe/Simferopol', 'Europe/Skopje', 'Europe/Sofia', 'Europe/Stockholm', 'Europe/Tallinn', 'Europe/Tirane', 'Europe/Tiraspol', 'Europe/Ulyanovsk', 'Europe/Uzhgorod', 'Europe/Vaduz', 'Europe/Vatican', 'Europe/Vienna', 'Europe/Vilnius', 'Europe/Volgograd', 'Europe/Warsaw', 'Europe/Zagreb', 'Europe/Zaporozhye', 'Europe/Zurich', 'GB', 'GB-Eire', 'GMT', 'GMT+0', 'GMT-0', 'GMT0', 'Greenwich', 'HST', 'Hongkong', 'Iceland', 'Indian/Antananarivo', 'Indian/Chagos', 'Indian/Christmas', 'Indian/Cocos', 'Indian/Comoro', 'Indian/Kerguelen', 'Indian/Mahe', 'Indian/Maldives', 'Indian/Mauritius', 'Indian/Mayotte', 'Indian/Reunion', 'Iran', 'Israel', 'Jamaica', 'Japan', 'Kwajalein', 'Libya', 'MET', 'MST', 'MST7MDT', 'Mexico/BajaNorte', 'Mexico/BajaSur', 'Mexico/General', 'NZ', 'NZ-CHAT', 'Navajo', 'PRC', 'PST8PDT', 'Pacific/Apia', 'Pacific/Auckland', 'Pacific/Bougainville', 'Pacific/Chatham', 'Pacific/Chuuk', 'Pacific/Easter', 'Pacific/Efate', 'Pacific/Enderbury', 'Pacific/Fakaofo', 'Pacific/Fiji', 'Pacific/Funafuti', 'Pacific/Galapagos', 'Pacific/Gambier', 'Pacific/Guadalcanal', 'Pacific/Guam', 'Pacific/Honolulu', 'Pacific/Johnston', 'Pacific/Kiritimati', 'Pacific/Kosrae', 'Pacific/Kwajalein', 'Pacific/Majuro', 'Pacific/Marquesas', 'Pacific/Midway', 'Pacific/Nauru', 'Pacific/Niue', 'Pacific/Norfolk', 'Pacific/Noumea', 'Pacific/Pago_Pago', 'Pacific/Palau', 'Pacific/Pitcairn', 'Pacific/Pohnpei', 'Pacific/Ponape', 'Pacific/Port_Moresby', 'Pacific/Rarotonga', 'Pacific/Saipan', 'Pacific/Samoa', 'Pacific/Tahiti', 'Pacific/Tarawa', 'Pacific/Tongatapu', 'Pacific/Truk', 'Pacific/Wake', 'Pacific/Wallis', 'Pacific/Yap', 'Poland', 'Portugal', 'ROC', 'ROK', 'Singapore', 'Turkey', 'UCT', 'US/Alaska', 'US/Aleutian', 'US/Arizona', 'US/Central', 'US/East-Indiana', 'US/Eastern', 'US/Hawaii', 'US/Indiana-Starke', 'US/Michigan', 'US/Mountain', 'US/Pacific', 'US/Samoa', 'UTC', 'Universal', 'W-SU', 'WET' and 'Zulu'.

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